Gough Barry M. Historical Dictionary of Canada

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150 • DIEPPE RAID

farmers and laborers. To a degree, he represented an earlier, small-

town Canada; he was not in concert with the aspirations of large

corporations or unions. He was passionate in his devotion to monarch

and to country. His downfall, when he was in diminishing physical

health, was the result of party colleagues deserting him. How this

happened is a matter of speculation. Peter C. Newman’s devastat-

ing Renegade in Power: The Diefenbaker Years betrayed the inner

workings of the man, the Progressive Conservative Party, and the

distemper of the times. Diefenbaker became a renegade to his own

party; he also fell short of the nation’s greater aspirations. See also

CAMP, DALTON KINGSLEY.

DIEPPE RAID. On 19 August 1942, 4,963 Canadians of the 2nd

Canadian Division, along with British commandos and American

Rangers, landed at the German-occupied port of Dieppe, France. The

result was a disaster, with some 70 percent of the Canadians killed,

wounded, or taken prisoner. It was the first major Canadian land

involvement in World War II. As well, it was the first amphibious

landing in Europe on a large scale in that war. The Germans may

have had foreknowledge of the raid and were, in any event, geo-

graphically advantaged. The lack of communications on the part of

the Allied command and insufficient naval bombardment furthered

the demise of the raid. As the infantry landed on the beach at about

5:40 a.m., German forces atop the cliff of the beach devastated the

landing craft with machine gun and other fire and laid waste to those

who got ashore. See also CANADIAN ARMY.

DOLLARD DES ORMEAUX, ADAM (1635–1660). Dollard des

Ormeaux was a commandant of the Montréal garrison. With 16

other soldiers, 40 Huron, and four Algonquin, he fought a strong

force of Iroquois at Long Sault (near present-day Hawkesbury,

Ontario), Ottawa River, where he died in a heroic struggle. Of leg-

endary proportions in Canadian history, he is regarded as a savior of

New France for staving off the Iroquois campaign to take Montréal.

The stirring episode of “The Seventeen” has often been told in his-

tory and story. The event is of heroic if enigmatic proportions. The

Iroquois sought expansion of their role in the fur trade. Some of the

Seventeen made last wills and testaments (customary in those days)

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DOMINION INSTITUTE • 151

before leaving Montréal and going to the Long Sault and setting up

their fort where they would strike at the Iroquois, bound there from

the Richelieu. Historians give the number of Iroquois at 500. The out-

come was never in doubt. Five survivors fell into Iroquois hands. The

battle lasted seven or eight days. Despite the outcome, the Iroquois

reasoned that if 17 could do so much, then further efforts would be

too costly. Montréal was saved. Archibald Lampman’s 1943 poem

“At the Long Sault: May, 1660” ends thusly: “And the lilies asleep

in the forest / Are closed like the lilies in France.”

DOMINION OF CANADA. Established 1 July 1867 by the British

statute known as the British North America Act (BNA Act), the

original dominion consisted of four provinces: Ontario, Québec,

Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. By this legislation, Québec and

Ontario were created provinces. The 1867 arrangement marked the

first phase of confederation. Subsequent additions of provinces were

Manitoba (1870), British Columbia (1871), Prince Edward Island

(1873), Alberta and Saskatchewan (1905), and Newfoundland and

Labrador (1949). The 1867 legislation did not refer to Canada as

the Dominion of Canada, though 1871 legislation did. By the 1960s,

use of the term Dominion of Canada gave way to just Canada, while

the federal government uses either Canada or the Government of

Canada. However, Dominion of Canada remains in effect. Dominion

Day (1st of July) became Canada Day in 1962. See also CONSTITU-

TION ACT OF 1867.

DOMINION INSTITUTE. Founded in 1997 by young professionals

concerned about the erosion of a common memory and civic identity

in Canada, Dominion Institute is headed by a governor and executive

director, currently Rudyard Griffiths. Based in Toronto, its mission

is to “build active and informed citizens through greater knowledge

and appreciation of the Canadian story.” The institute uses public

opinion research and innovative television, news media, and in-

school programs. Its programs fall under three themes: memory,

democracy, and identity. The institute assists the publication of es-

says and short-story collections that bring together Canada’s leading

authors, public thinkers, and historians. Historical areas and subjects

covered are catholic and nonpartisan; they are selected so as to bring

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152 • DONNACONNA

fine minds to the discussion of Canada past and present. Of unique

interest is the Memory Project, a speakers’ bureau of 1,500 veterans

who visit Canadians to share stories of war and peace; an online

digital archive, at www.thememoryproject.com, contains more than

1,000 stories of Canada’s war veterans. The LaFontaine-Baldwin

Symposium explores questions of democracy. The Canadian Ab-

original Writing Challenge encourages aboriginal Canadians to write

about defining moments in history. Canada in 2020 is a forum about

future transformation.

DONNACONNA (d. 1539?). Chief of Stadacona until May 1536,

Donnaconna felt wronged when Jacques Cartier erected a cross in

Gaspé Bay. Cartier took him and two sons into exile. Donnaconna

died in France.

DORION, ANTOINE-AIMÉ (1818–1891). Politician Sir Antoine-

Aimé Dorion was a member of the Institut Canadien and the Parti

Rouge. Elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1854, Dorion re-

mained a member of the House of Commons until 1874. In 1858, he

and George Brown formed the “Short Administration.” In 1863, he

was the Lower Canada leader in the Sandfield-Macdonald-Dorion

government. Although originally opposed to confederation, he came

to accept the idea. See also ROUGES.

DOUGLAS, JAMES (1803–1877). A fur trader and second governor

of Vancouver Island (succeeding Richard Blanshard), Sir James

Douglas was the first governor of British Columbia. A “Scotch

West Indian,” Douglas was born in Demerara, British Guiana, the

son of a “free colored woman” and a Glasgow merchant with inter-

ests in sugar plantations. Educated in England, he was apprenticed at

the age of 16 to the North West Company. He joined the Hudson’s

Bay Company (HBC) in the merger of 1821 and served in various

places, including Fort Vancouver. In the service of the HBC, from

which he retired in 1858, he headed operations on the Pacific coast

for much of the 1840s and 1850s. He founded Fort Victoria, Van-

couver Island, in 1843. Firm, vigorous, and despotic, and with excel-

lent commercial and managerial instincts, Douglas shaped the close

relations between business and government that characterizes the

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DOUKHOBORS • 153

province’s history to this day. He became governor of the Colony of

Vancouver Island in 1851, lieutenant governor of the Queen Char-

lotte Islands in 1852, and governor of British Columbia in 1858. His

new responsibilities for the Queen Charlottes and British Columbia

were directly related to the discovery of gold in each locale. The

Colonial Office in London saw him increasingly as autocratic and

out of touch with the times (true on both counts). He retired in 1863

and was created Knight Commander of the Bath. He toured Europe

for a time and then spent the rest of his life quietly in Victoria with

his Métis wife, Lady Amelia Douglas. He died in Victoria and was

buried there in Ross Bay Cemetery.

DOUGLAS, THOMAS CLEMENT (1904–1986). Baptist minister

and politician T. C. (“Tommy”) Clement was a premier of Saskatch-

ewan and sometime federal member of Parliament. This powerful

speaker and inspired, crusading leftist was born at Falkirk, Scotland,

and led the first socialist government elected in Canada, Saskatche-

wan’s Cooperative Commonwealth Federation / New Democratic

Party (NDP) government, which stood for 17 years beginning in

1944. The prairie provinces were fertile ground for new collectiv-

ist causes calling for action in the face of economic depression and

the social needs of a nation that had fought a six-year war. Douglas

championed social services and health care, of which he is regarded

as the chief architect. His introduction of Medicare in Saskatchewan

in 1947 brought forth a long, acrimonious fight against striking doc-

tors. He returned to federal politics and served as leader of the NDP

until 1971. Many of his concepts and plans for social security were

adopted by other provinces, then made universal by federal legisla-

tion. See also HEALTH CARE; WELFARE.

DOUKHOBORS. A Greek Orthodox sect believing in a communal,

democratic, nonmilitaristic, and nonconforming life style, the Douk-

hobors called themselves Christians of the Universal Brotherhood.

Prominent in Russia in the 18th and 19th centuries, they rejected the

authority of both church and state and were consequently persecuted

under Empress Catherine II. They settled near the Sea of Azov, estab-

lished thriving agricultural communities, refused military conscrip-

tion, and again were persecuted. Their leader, Peter Veregin, was

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154 • DUMONT, GABRIEL

exiled to Siberia. Befriended by Leo Tolstoy, the group emigrated

to Saskatchewan (7,000 in 1898–99) and were joined by Veregin.

Beginning in 1908, they spread to southeastern British Columbia.

Divisions beset them, and nudist strikes and destruction of public

bridges resulted in police action against them. Veregin was linked

with an explosion in 1924 and imprisoned. He was succeeded by his

son, also named Peter Veregin, who died in 1939. The second Peter

recommended abandoning communal ways and adjusting to Cana-

dian life. The Union of the Doukhobors of Canada was established

in 1945; the radical wing, the Sons of Freedom, became separate

shortly thereafter. Pressures from the BC government and police re-

duced their radical political power and allowed the children to attend

schools run under the regulations and curriculum of the provincial

Department of Education.

DUMONT, GABRIEL (1837–1906). Born in Red River (Manitoba),

Dumont, an acclaimed hunter and rider, became a leader of the

Métis. He did not participate in the Red River Rebellion in 1870.

Dumont became adjutant general of the 300-strong Métis Army in

the Northwest Rebellion in 1885. He was steadfastly loyal to leader

Louis Riel, his near contemporary and ally, and he believed in Riel’s

capacity to shape events. He used guerrilla tactics and surprise am-

bushes to secure victories at Duck Lake and Fish Creek, but at Bato-

che the Métis were overwhelmed by a large Canadian militia force.

Dumont fled to the United States but returned after the Canadian

government amnesty of 1888. He died at Batoche. He married but

had no children.

DUNCAN, WILLIAM (1832–1918). A Yorkshire-born lay member of

the Church Missionary Society (CMS) (affiliated with the Church of

England), Duncan was educated at the CMS’s Highbury College then

sent in 1856 to British Columbia to open its coastal mission there.

Taking on messianic ways, Duncan established the Metlakatla mission

near Fort Simpson, British Columbia, in 1862. A social revolutionary

and Victorian evangelical, he transformed Tsimshian culture there.

A dispute with the parent society and the Church of England—and a

struggle with the Government of Canada over reservation size—led

him to take some of his adherents to Annette Island, Alaska, in 1887.

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DURHAM, EARL OF • 155

There he founded New Metlakatla, which like Metlakatla aimed to

become a progressive, commercial, and industrial community with

self-sufficiency and native pride as its basis. Duncan suffered from

megalomania, and in later years he faced court challenges from the

U.S. government. He was defended by the pharmaceutical giant Sir

Henry Welcome. He died at New Metlakatla, Alaska.

DUNLOP, WILLIAM (1792–1848). Born in Scotland, William “Ti-

ger” Dunlop arrived in Québec in 1813 and became an army surgeon

during the War of 1812, which spanned 1812–15. He described his

experiences at Prescott, Gananoque, Cornwall, Niagara, and the

Penetanguishene Road in his Recollections of the American War,

published serially in 1847 and in book form in 1905. He returned

to England and then served in the British Army in India, where he

is supposed to have tamed tigers with snuff—hence his nickname.

Dunlop returned to Canada in 1826 with John Galt, a Scottish settle-

ment promoter and poet, who played a conspicuous part in opening

the Canada Company Tract in western Ontario. Dunlop was “War-

den of the Forests.” He settled near Goderich on Lake Huron and

became known locally as well as afar for his high good humor. He

wrote for English and Scottish magazines. His Statistical Sketches of

Upper Canada (1832) is his best-known work. He was a member of

the Canadian Parliament in 1841–46. In his last years, he was super-

intendent of the Lachine Canal. He died at Lachine and was buried

at Goderich.

DURHAM, EARL OF (JOHN GEORGE LAMBTON) (1792–

1840). John George Lambton, Earl of Durham, was governor general

of Canada in 1838. “Radical Jack,” as his political enemies called

him, was sent to Canada in the wake of the Rebellions of 1837 but

remained only a few months before resigning and returning to Eng-

land. He wrote the Report on the Affairs of British North America,

also commonly called Durham’s Report (officially communicated to

Parliament 11 February 1839), in which he proposed union of the two

existing provinces and the granting of responsible government. He

was a champion of municipal government and may be regarded as a

champion of progressive constitutional change in his times, though

he was a confirmed adherent to the imperial cause.

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156 • EATON’S

– E –

EATON’S. Originally the Timothy Eaton Company, Eaton’s depart-

ment store may be said to date from 1869 when Irish shopkeeper

Timothy Eaton bought out a small dry goods store on Yonge Street,

Toronto. He promised fair, affordable prices backed up by his guar-

antee: “Goods satisfactory or money refunded.” In 1884, he intro-

duced the mail-order catalogue (the mail-order business continued

until 1976). By the time Eaton died in 1907, his company had opened

a second store, in Winnipeg, and employed 9,000 people. The com-

pany was privately owned and the company’s control passed down

the family. The company’s activities were shrouded in mystery. In

the 1960s, Eaton’s reached its zenith, with 30,000 employees. It

eventually lost much of its market share to Simpson’s-Sears (later

Sears), the Hudson’s Bay Company, Wal-Mart, Zellers, and others.

In 1997, it sought bankruptcy protection, devised a major restruc-

turing plan, and closed 22 of 86 stores in its first wave of closures.

Several potential takeovers were considered, but the company folded.

In its time, Eaton’s was a Canadian institution, sure and confident.

Timothy Eaton would not sell tobacco products in his stores, and

curtains would be drawn on storefront windows on Sundays.

ECONOMY. The eighth largest economy in the world according to

International Monetary Fund measures, using U.S. dollars at market

exchange rates, Canada ranks as one of the world’s wealthiest na-

tions. It is a member of the Organization for Economic Cooperation

and Development (OECD) and the Group of Eight (G8). The primary

sector, especially logging and oil, are significant components in the

economy. There is a sizeable manufacturing sector, centered in On-

tario and Québec, with the automobile industry especially impor-

tant. The largest sector of the Canadian economy is the service sector

(69.1 percent). Agriculture, while significant on the world stage in

terms of production, accounts for only 2.1 percent of GDP and in-

volves only 2 percent of the population. The labor force of Canada is

17.9 million (2007 estimate). While unemployment was 5.98 percent

in 2007, it spiked higher in the global economic turmoil of 2008–09.

Main industries of Canada are transportation equipment, chemicals,

processed and unprocessed minerals, food products, wood and paper

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ECONOMY • 157

products, fish products, petroleum, and natural gas. The Canadian

economy may be classified as a mixed market or social market econ-

omy, which the Heritage Foundation ranks as 7th in the world on the

“index of economic freedom.” Canada thus ranks higher than most

European countries and slightly lower than the United States, which

is in fifth place. Canada ranks high in the most developed countries of

the world by the Human Development Index, with a GDP per capita

lower than that of the United States but a median household income

equal to that of the United States.

Canada lives by foreign trade and retains a strong trade balance.

Canada imports $394.4 billion (2007), predominantly from the

United States (about 54 percent) but also countries including Great

Britain and Japan, mainly machinery and equipment, motor vehicles

and parts, electronics, crude oil, chemicals, electricity, and durable

consumer goods. Canada exports $440.1 billion (2007), predomi-

nantly to the United States (about 81 percent) but also countries such

as China and Mexico, mainly motor vehicles and parts, industrial

machinery, aircraft, telecommunications equipment, electronics,

chemicals, plastics, fertilizers, wood pulp, timber, crude petroleum,

natural gas, aluminum, and precious metals.

By and large, Canada’s economy is based on its regions, though

the natural resources of the country are spread across these regions.

In British Columbia, forestry and forest products, mining, and hy-

droelectricity generation are engines of the economy, with natural

gas production a rising force. Fishing and fish processing, at one time

significant, counts for much less importance now, with the demise

of fish stocks. Alberta’s power lies in oil and natural gas, with beef

industry and agricultural production (grains) also of significance.

Saskatchewan and Manitoba have minerals of importance besides

oil and natural gas and agricultural significance on a world scale.

Saskatchewan has potash in abundance, and it is one of the exports

to China.

Ontario is rich in timber, pulp and paper production, hydroelectric

and nuclear power, minerals, agriculture, and especially industrial

production, of which automobile, motor parts, and machinery are

significant. Québec enjoys a very similar economy, and the two prov-

inces are closely linked in the manufacturing and electronics sector.

Both provinces have aviation industries, Québec’s being particularly

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158 • ECONOMY

significant on the Canadian stage. Québec is the telecommunications

center of the nation. Most Canadian corporations have headquarters

in Ontario, Québec, or Calgary, in that order. The shift of corpo-

rate headquarters from Montréal to Toronto and then to Calgary

since the 1960s is noteworthy. Corporations of unique influence are

EnCana (gas and oil), Goldcorp, and Barrick Gold. In industrials,

leaders are Canadian National Railway and Canadian Pacific

Railway. The Atlantic Provinces, and Newfoundland and Labrador

in particular, have some energy sources and thus government royal-

ties from oil. Pulp and paper are significant to these provinces, and

mining. The decline of cod stocks has placed pressure on other fish

species, and fish processing has in consequence sadly collapsed or

diminished greatly.

Canada’s north is regarded as a place for future economic develop-

ment, but this, to date, has often been overstated. There may be oil

and natural gas in the Arctic waters that Canada now claims as its

own under terms of the 200-mile offshore limit. In these waters, the

federal government has unquestioned authority, though Nunavut, the

Northwest Territories, and the Yukon governments will claim their

respective shares in tax revenues from such future development, as

Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador have done in offshore

oil. In the past hundred years, there has been much debate in Canada

concerning “have” and “have-not” provinces, and how imbalances in

wealth can be adjusted. The federal authority has acted as broker, and

schemes for diversion and development have been introduced with

uncertain effect and advantage.

The overall reliance on natural resource extraction has meant that

Canadian governments, federal and provincial, have endeavored to

regulate these commercial activities and to gain tax revenues from

them. The inherent instability of such industries, related as they are

to world supply and demand, means that greater government inter-

vention is employed to reduce the social impact of market changes.

The control of resources is a provincial matter by constitutional right,

but federal governments take steps from time to time to regulate

the export of such commodities. Therein lies a problem in federal-

provincial relations. Another current factor in Canadian politics is the

matter of environmental degradation, and Canadians are becoming

less willing to accept this, accepting the financial cost of doing such

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ECONOMY • 159

business and cleanup. In consequence, regulations and permits are a

minefield and a complication for corporations undertaking explora-

tion and development, in cases sometimes deterring business and

chasing capital overseas. Canadian companies have played powerful

roles in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa in mining, oil

exploration, hydroelectric development, water diversion, transporta-

tion, and communications. Oil is now a driving force in the Canadian

economy, having replaced the older resource industries. The vast oil

(tar) sands make Canada the second largest reserves in the world af-

ter Saudi Arabia. But this oil extraction is labor and capital intensive,

and it has destructive impacts on the environment of unprecedented

proportion.

The manufacturing sector predominantly involves one item: the

automobile. Canada is home to branch plants of all major American

and Japanese automobile makers and many parts factories—Budd

Automotive, Magna International, and Linamar Corporation. A host

of subsidiaries serve this sector and engage in trade with the United

States, including tool and dye, metal heat treating and strengthen-

ing, and leather cutting. Canada’s economy did not suffer significant

deindustrialization in the 1970s and 1980s, a contrast to other devel-

oped countries. The move from primary industry to service industry

did not dramatically influence the industrial sector, concentrated as it

is on the auto sector. One uniquely Canadian company in manufac-

turing that is not a branch plant is Bombardier, a constructor of light

rail, underground commuter trains, skidoos, and aircraft.

The service sector is vast and multifaceted. Twelve percent of

Canadians are employed in retail. Chain stores in shopping malls are

significant, and in recent years big-box stores. Financial services,

real estate, and communications industries have seen large growth.

Insurance corporations as well as banks are significant employers,

and many of them have expanded beyond Canada’s boundaries,

notably to the United States. Education and health sectors are two

of Canada’s largest, both under the purview of government. With

something like 70 universities, Canada’s post-secondary education

sector is a formidable feature of social spending and benefit. Tech-

nical colleges add to this wealth in human and economic value and

production. The health care system has seen rapid growth and is the

largest expenditure of the federal government. The high-tech sector

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