Gough Barry M. Historical Dictionary of Canada

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120 • CANADIAN MUTUAL AID

Iran, Palestine, Darfur, and other “problem spots” of concern to the

West. The current preoccupation is living with the “hyper power,”

the United States. The CIIA is based in Toronto. Its library, the John

Holmes Library, is housed in the University of Toronto.

CANADIAN MUTUAL AID. Equivalent to American Lend-Lease,

Canadian Mutual Aid was the main economic measure during World

War II whereby Canada assisted Great Britain and other Allies with

foodstuffs, raw materials, and armaments. It followed the $1 billion

gift to Britain in 1942 to bring supplies from Canada. Started in 1943

and run by a board in Canada, it helped the British at a time when gold

and dollar reserves were depleted; it equally helped Canada’s produc-

tion and thus prosperity. Great Britain received altogether $4 billion

from Canada; the Soviet Union, China, India, and the British West

Indies also were recipients. The debt of $425 million for the cost of the

British Commonwealth Air Training Plan was written off.

CANADIAN NATIONAL RAILWAYS. Now a publicly owned cor-

poration trading under the name CNRail, and one of the giants of the

stock markets, Canadian National Railways was first a crown corpo-

ration created out of necessity by the Unionist government of Robert

Borden in 1919. Its history is a rags to riches one. Between 1919 and

1923, the government consolidated a number of railways, includ-

ing the old Grand Trunk lines, the Prince Edward Island Railway,

National Transcontinental Railway, and the Intercolonial Railway

under the name Canadian National Railways. The organization of the

company was complete by 1923. In early years, it waged a competi-

tive struggle with the privately owned Canadian Pacific Railway.

This ended with the Canadian National-Canadian Pacific Act (1933),

which directed the two systems to cooperate in seeking economies.

Canadian National, as it was commonly called, played a role in

the earliest development of government-owned radio broadcasting

in Canada and the establishment of Trans-Canada Airlines (now Air

Canada). Its passenger services and marine departments were closed

down over a long period of time. It became more and more a mover

of freight: its freight revenues derived chiefly from petroleum and

chemical shipment also metals and minerals, forest products, coal,

grain, fertilizers, and intermodal and automotive transit. In 1978,

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CANADIAN NAVY • 121

Canadian National’s passenger services were taken over by VIA

Rail Canada, a crown corporation established to operate all Canadian

passenger services. Canadian National came to control the Central

Vermont Railway; the Duluth, Winnipeg, and Pacific Railway; and

the Grand Trunk Western Railway Company. After privatization,

CNRail acquired the Illinois Central Railroad (chartered 1851) in

1998, enhancing it as a continental powerhouse in transportation,

with portals on the Pacific (Vancouver, Prince Rupert), the Atlantic

(Montréal, Halifax, Saint John), and the Gulf of Mexico (New Or-

leans). It operates 20,300 route miles, 14,000 of which are in Canada.

See also CANADIAN NORTHERN RAILWAY.

CANADIAN NAVY. An outgrowth of its parent, the Royal Navy,

Canada’s navy was created by the Naval Service Act of 1910 (effec-

tive 10 May). The Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) was to be managed

by the Ministry of the Naval Service, a department of the Ministry

of Marine and Fisheries, and be under the command of a naval staff

officer not less in rank than rear admiral. The RCN was to fall under

the command of the Admiralty in London upon declaration of war

but would be administered from Ottawa. During war, the Royal

Navy was to use the main bases at Halifax, Nova Scotia, and Esqui-

malt, British Columbia. Two cruisers were acquired from the Royal

Navy—HMCS Niobe for the Atlantic coast and HMCS Rainbow on

the Pacific—principally for training purposes. The naval question of

the era contributed to the fall of the government of Prime Minister

Wilfrid Laurier in 1911.

The RCN formed coastal patrols against U-boats during World

War I, but most naval personnel—an estimated 10,000—served with

its parent service, the Royal Navy. After 1918, the navy faced severe

fiscal restraints and was forced to fight for its existence. Despite cut-

backs, Comm. Walter Hose established the Royal Canadian Naval

Volunteer Reserve, which was to prove vital during the subsequent

wartime expansion. Also in the 1930s, modern destroyers were pur-

chased. In 1939, when World War II broke out, the RCN possessed

11 warships and 3,000 personnel; by 1945, the navy had 365 ships

in commission and 100,000 personnel. Canadian corvettes, such as

HMCS Sackville, now a Canadian national naval memorial in Hali-

fax, played a heroic, legendary role in convoy protection in the Battle

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122 • CANADIAN NAVY

of the Atlantic. The RCN contributed half of the anti-submarine es-

corts in the North Atlantic and was responsible for the sinking of 52

German U-boats and one Italian submarine. The RCN also deployed

forces to patrol the English Channel, the Bay of Biscay, and in sup-

port of the Normandy landings in 1944. RCN ships also served in the

Mediterranean, in Arctic convoys to north Russia, and in the Pacific.

At war’s end, the RCN was the fifth largest navy in the world.

After 1945, the government of Prime Minister William Lyon

Mackenzie King decided to construct a balanced fleet, including

naval aviation and a submarine service, to contribute to Canada’s

role in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. However, the anti-

submarine role remained its principal mission. Budgetary constraints

in the 1960s and 1970s saw the elimination of the Navy’s last aircraft

carrier, HMCS Bonaventure, in 1970. This occurred after a $17 mil-

lion refit in a Québec shipyard; Bonaventure was then promptly sold

for scrap for $750,000. The naval air arm was now limited to heli-

copters embarked aboard newly built destroyers. As time wore on,

defense budgets cut even deeper and no new ships entered Canadian

service after 1974 until 1991, when the new patrol frigate HMCS

Halifax and 11 similar vessels were commissioned. The Defense

White Paper undertaken by the Progressive Conservative govern-

ment in the mid-1980s sought to change the face of the navy by the

possible purchase of 10 to 12 nuclear-propelled submarines from

either Britain or France. However, the cost was too high for Canada

to bear.

Since the end of the Cold War, like other NATO navies, the Cana-

dian naval service has been undertaking new roles. During the 1991

Persian Gulf War, several Canadian warships, including a destroyer

tender, participated in the naval task force in the Persian Gulf sup-

porting the ground troops in Saudi Arabia. Throughout the 1990s and

after, the navy kept a distant station in the Persian Gulf.

In 1968, the navy was merged administratively (at the top) with

the other services under the name Canadian Armed Forces. The

navy became Maritime Command with its headquarters in Halifax

and, since 1995, in Ottawa. Maritime Command is a highly skilled

force highly capable in anti-submarine warfare (ASW). Deployment

to distant seas, especially the Persian Gulf, on control and command

missions is changing the role of the navy away from ASW. Recent

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CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY • 123

pressing issues have included the replacement of the navy’s elderly

Oberon class with Victoria-class diesel submarines and the replace-

ment of the aging helicopter fleet. See also HAIDA.

CANADIAN NORTHERN RAILWAY. The Canadian Northern was

founded by the energetic, hard-driving “lords of the line” William

Mackenzie and Donald Mann in 1899. They went from building one

line in Manitoba to building a transcontinental railway. The line was

popular with prairie farmers, who were granted low freight rates, and

with western provincial governments. Its line had links to Regina,

Saskatoon, Prince Albert, and Edmonton. Mackenzie and Mann

eventually decided to expand to the west coast, to Vancouver, and

eastward to Montréal. Its southern British Columbia line competed

strongly with the Canadian Pacific Railway, through the Fraser

River canyon and through to Vancouver. The company incurred mas-

sive debts before World War I. The government of Canada bought

out Mackenzie and Mann, and the railway became part of Canadian

National Railways (now CNRail).

CANADIAN PACIFIC RAILWAY (CPR). Under terms of union, a

rail link was promised to British Columbia when it entered confed-

eration in 1871. Canada’s first transcontinental railway, it was begun

soon after the Confederation of 1867. Start of the project was delayed

by the Pacific Scandal in 1873, involving John A. Macdonald’s

government. The Liberals under Alexander Mackenzie were finan-

cially strapped as they took office from the Conservatives in 1873.

When Macdonald’s Conservatives regained power in 1878, they

turned to a new group of financiers to develop a company to build

the rail line. The company became the Canadian Pacific Railway

Company in 1881. In 1881, Canada gave the CPR $25 million and

25 million acres to facilitate completion of the transcontinental line.

The company built its railway through the Selkirk Mountains of

British Columbia after Major Albert Rogers discovered the pass that

now bears his name. Under the guidance of American-born engineer

and general manager William Van Horne, construction proceeded

rapidly. By November 1885, the last spike was driven at Craigella-

chie, BC. The first train left Montréal for Port Moody, BC, 28 June

1886. Vancouver became the eastern terminus. At the time of its

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124 • CANADIAN SECURITY INTELLIGENCE SERVICE

completion, it was one of the longest railway lines in the world, and

its completion was a triumph over financial as well as geographical

obstacles. Tunnels were constructed through Rogers Pass to reduce

the track’s grade and guard against avalanches and other slides. (On

4 March 1910, 64 men clearing snow from tracks in Rogers Pass

had been swept to their “white death” in Canada’s worst snowslide

disaster.) The construction of the Kicking Horse Pass was also a

monumental engineering task. The whole project depended on gov-

ernment subventions, guaranteed bonds, investors, and grants of land

or tax-free status.

From Canadian Pacific Railway derived Canadian Pacific Limited.

Mergers and splits have forged and changed the CP empire. In 1942,

for example, CPR united 10 local airlines to create CP Air. In 1978,

government-owned VIA RAIL took over CP’s passenger service, and

CP Air was sold to Pacific Western Airlines in 1987. In 1992, CP’s

telecom division was renamed United Communications and became

a long-distance telephone service provider. CP sold its money-losing

CP Forest in 1993 and talked with CNR about merging rail networks

east of Winnipeg. In 1994, CP sold its trucking division and in 1995

bought the Cast Group container-shipping business. In 1996, CP sold

Marathon Realty, its commercial real estate subsidiary. In 1998, its

hotel subsidiary bought Princess Hotels and the Delta Hotel chain;

1999 brought a hotel chain merger with U.S.-based Fairmont Hotels.

In 2001, the CPR corporation split as follows: CPRail (railway)

continues; CP Ships (later sold); Fording Coal; CP Hotels became

Fairmont Hotels (later sold); Pan Canadian Petroleum (united with

Alberta Energy to form giant EnCana). The latter, in 2009, divided

into EnCana and Cenovus.

CANADIAN SECURITY INTELLIGENCE SERVICE (CSIS). See

SECRET SERVICE.

CANOL PIPELINE. Canol is short for Canadian oil. The pipeline

was built in 1942–1944, extending from Norman Wells, Northwest

Territories, to Whitehorse, Yukon, to supply oil products in defense

of Alaska.

CAPE BRETON ISLAND. Discovered by fishermen from Brittany

during the French regime, Cape Breton Island was initially called

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CARDINAL, HAROLD • 125

Îsle Royale. In 1773, Highland Scots settlers arrived in the ship Hec-

tor at Cape Breton. Cape Breton was an independent British colony

from 1784 to 1820, when it was united with Nova Scotia. See also

LOUISBOURG.

CARDINAL, HAROLD (1945–2005). Native activist and author Har-

old Cardinal, an Alberta-born Cree, was at the forefront of modern

aboriginal politics. In 1970, while president of the Indian Associa-

tion of Alberta, he played hard-nosed politics against Prime Minister

Pierre Trudeau and the cabinet. He accused the federal politicians

of trying to “exterminate” Canada’s aboriginal peoples. This was a

defining moment for Cardinal and for Canada’s First Nations. In his

landmark book The Unjust Society (1972), which inverted Trudeau’s

1968 aim and claim of “a Just Society,” Cardinal wrote, “Generations

of Indians have grown up behind a buckskin curtain of indifference,

ignorance and, all too often, plain bigotry. The history of Canada’s

Indians is a shameful chronicle of the white man’s disinterest, his

trampling of Indian rights.” The work appeared about the same time

as American native rights activist Vine Deloria’s Custer Died for

Your Sins and similar works. Cardinal’s book and agitation brought

him instant recognition within the aboriginal community as a politi-

cal force, and his activism influenced others such as Phil Fontaine,

National Chief of the Assembly of First Nations, and Elijah Harper,

noted member of the Manitoba legislature who helped kill the

Meech Lake Accord.

The Trudeau government, then with Jean Chrétien as Indian

Affairs minister, had issued a “white paper” on Indian affairs. This

advocated ending native rights, treaties, and Indian status itself.

Trudeau’s argument was that natives had constitutional rights that

they should proclaim and defend in courts or commissions of claim,

but not inherent racial rights and entitlements. Cardinal responded

to this by another book The Red Papers, a less influential work than

his first book. In the mid-1970s, the federal government abandoned

its white paper and put in place an ill-starred Indian claims commis-

sion that ran up huge bills on the government charge and resulted

in a good deal of inter-Indian acrimony. Cardinal’s influence on the

section of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms that dealt

with inherent and existing aboriginal rights as of 1982 can only be

imagined; certainly, his earlier actions paved the way for this historic

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126 • CARHAGOUHA

reversal of policy. That change occurred during Trudeau’s finest

hour. The “buckskin curtain”—of racism and discrimination against

aboriginal peoples—was torn down a bit over the years but remained

a fact of aboriginal life, commented Cardinal’s daughter-in-law,

another activist, Beverley Jones, president of the Native Women’s

Association of Canada.

Cardinal, who also wrote The Rebirth of Canadian Indians, ran

unsuccessfully for the Liberals in Athabasca riding in 1990; Chrétien

was then leader of both the party and the country. Cardinal was chief

of the Sucker Creek band, 1982–83, and vice chief of the Prairie

region of the Assembly of First Nations. He had a law degree from

the University of Saskatchewan, a master’s from Harvard School of

Law, and a Ph.D. in law from University of British Columbia. He

was called to the bar in 2004. Cardinal and his wife, Maisie, likewise

a Ph.D., placed a high value on higher education; all six of their

children obtained a university education. “He inspired us all,” son

Sheldon said of Cardinal’s tireless statements about the importance of

education in the lives of aboriginal people. “It warmed his heart. He

had so much pride.” Cardinal died of lung cancer. See also INDIANS.

CARHAGOUHA. A fortified village of the Bear people of the Hu-

ron, Carhagouha was the site of the first Christian mass celebrated

in what is now the Province of Ontario, 12 August 1615. The site

is estimated to be a mile or more northwest of the present village of

Lafontaine. The celebrant was Father Le Caron, S.J., and present at

the time was the noted explorer Samuel de Champlain. Another ob-

server, Father Le Clerq, related that “the raising of the Cross, the sign

of our redemption, was hailed with volleys of musketry and accom-

panied by acts of thanksgiving, the Te Deum being chanted for the

first time in that barbarous country.” See also HURONIA; JESUITS.

CARLETON, GUY (1724–1808). A British soldier, and the first

Baron Dorchester, Sir Guy Carleton served under Major General

James Wolfe during the Seven Years War and fought on the Plains

of Abraham in 1759. As governor of Québec in 1775, he success-

fully defended the city against the Americans under Benedict Arnold,

whom he subsequently defeated again on Lake Champlain in 1776.

Carleton was governor of Québec in 1775–77, 1786–89, and 1793–

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CARTIER, GEORGE ÉTIENNE • 127

96. Architect of the Québec Act, he was also governor of Lower

Canada 1791–96. His efforts in Canada contributed to Britain’s

success in keeping Québec under British rule. See also AMERICAN

REVOLUTION.

CARMACK, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1860–1922). Also known

as “Lying George,” Carmack is famous for discovering the first

Klondike gold at Rabbit Creek, renamed Bonanza Creek, on 16 or

17 August 1896. The Yukon Territory celebrates 17 August as the

anniversary of Carmack’s discovery. He staked four claims on the

Bonanza and recorded them at the North West Mounted Police Office

at Fortymile. With him when he made his discovery were Skookum

Jim Mason and Tagish Charlie, his Indian friends. Carmacks, on the

west bank of the Yukon River 176 kilometers north of Whitehorse,

is named after him. He was born in Port Costa, California, and died

in Vancouver, British Columbia, a wealthy man.

CARR, EMILY (1871–1945). Artist and author Emily Carr was born

in Victoria, British Columbia, and educated at local public schools.

She studied art in San Francisco and for five years at the Westmin-

ster School of Art in London, England. She returned to Canada,

opening a studio in Vancouver, and began to paint British Colum-

bian landscape and native culture. In 1927, she exhibited some of her

artwork in an exhibition of Canadian west coast art in Ottawa. Later

in life, Carr wrote short stories about her adventures in native villages

on the west coast. Some of her books are Klee Wyck, The Book of

Small, and Growing Pains. One of Canada’s most famous artists and

authors, she was the subject of numerous biographies and literary as

well as artistic studies.

CARTIER, GEORGE ÉTIENNE (1814–1873). A lawyer, politi-

cian, and critically important architect of Canadian confederation,

Cartier led the Bleu bloc of Canada East (Québec) and forged an

alliance with John A. Macdonald in 1854, forming a government

in the Province of Canada. Cartier recognized that French Canada’s

destiny lay in an alliance with English Canadians but, at the same

time, believed that French Canadians needed legislation to protect

their culture and economic improvement through transportation and

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128 • CARTIER, JACQUES

commercial schemes. He was attorney general for the Province of

Canada and solicitor for the Grand Trunk Railway, and he advanced

the cause of his people. In 1858, in what was called the “double

shuffle,” the Macdonald-Cartier ministry was reconstituted and

remained in office until 1862. In this new arrangement, Cartier en-

tered the Great Coalition of 1864, which advanced the confederation

design. Cartier insisted on a bicameral legislative structure and saw

an upper chamber, a Canadian Senate, as being necessary to protect

French Canada’s regional, linguistic, and ethnic needs. Macdonald

reluctantly agreed. Cartier impressed upon French Canadians the

need for their vote in confederation. However, many saw him as

having sold out. He was defeated in 1872 during the patronage crisis

over the Canadian Pacific Railway. He died in 1873, the first great

Québec federalist.

CARTIER, JACQUES (1491–1557). A French mariner and ex-

plorer, Cartier examined the Gulf of St. Lawrence and St. Law-

rence River in three great voyages. In 1534, he circumnavigated

the gulf. In 1536, he explored the river as far as west Hochelaga or

Montréal, where he put up a cross. In his third voyage, 1541, this

one in search of a mythical El Dorado, the kingdom of Saguenay,

he added geographical knowledge of the area. Guided by natives

such as Donnaconna, and aided by their knowledge of how to com-

bat scurvy and endure Canadian winters, Cartier charted the shores

of eastern Canada for France and extended French and Christian

claims there.

CARY, MARY SHADD (1823–1893). Editor and activist Mary Shadd

Cary was the first black woman in North America to establish and

edit a weekly newspaper. She was born in Wilmington, Delaware,

and moved to Windsor, Ontario, in 1851. In 1853, she established

the Provincial Freeman. The newspaper covered all aspects of black

life in Canada.

CASGRAIN, THERESE (1896–1981). Feminist and reformer Marie

Therese Forget Casgrain was born in Montréal. In 1921, she started

campaigning in Québec for women’s suffrage. She functioned, vir-

tually alone, in a difficult political climate to promote human rights,

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CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE • 129

especially for women. In 1946, she joined the Cooperative Com-

monwealth Federation, serving as its provincial leader in 1951–57.

She was named to the Senate in 1970. See also WOMEN IN CANA-

DIAN HISTORY.

CHAMPLAIN, SAMUEL DE (1567?–1635). Explorer Samuel de

Champlain was a navigator, geographer, cartographer, ethnologist,

and colonizer instrumental in founding New France. For 30 years,

Champlain painstakingly established France’s presence in the New

World. With Sieur de Monts, he visited the St. Croix valley in 1604–

1605. On a small island, Douchet, near Red Beach in Calais, Maine,

they tried to establish a permanent settlement named St. Croix. They

were aided by local Passamaquoddy natives. Unprepared for the

harsh winter, the settlers had severe casualties: 35 of the 100 soldiers

and traders died. The survivors explored south to Cape Cod; this was

16 years before the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth Rock. Champlain

explored the Bay of Fundy, the coast of Maine and elsewhere on the

Atlantic coast, and the interior of the continent as far west as Geor-

gian Bay and Lake Huron. He allied with certain native peoples, the

Algonquin, against the Iroquois.

In 1608, he established a settlement where the St. Lawrence

River narrows: Québec, so-called by the aboriginal peoples. This

was a decisive event in Canadian history. He made his great western

journey in 1615, to Georgian Bay in Lake Huron via the Ottawa and

French rivers. Champlain secured an alliance with the Huron, and he

pursued his grand design of a French empire in North America with

skill, perseverance, and stamina. He crossed the Atlantic 27 times be-

tween 1599 and 1635 without losing a single major ship. It took deft

and constant lobbying within the French court to maintained support

for his daring enterprise in the New World. In New France, he faced

cold, isolation, hunger, corruption, war, and other hardships, includ-

ing mutiny. His charts, travel accounts, and histories are important

contributions to learning. He had an insatiable curiosity about the

complex aboriginal cultures he encountered and was genuinely inter-

ested in what he could learn from them. Although Champlain was the

greatest of French explorers in the early history of New France, his

gravesite remains unknown in the city of Québec. His astrolabe is in

Ottawa’s Museum of Civilization.

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