Gough Barry M. Historical Dictionary of Canada

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130 • CHARLOTTETOWN AGREEMENT

CHARLOTTETOWN AGREEMENT. See MEECH LAKE AC-

CORD.

CHÉNIER, JEAN OLIVER (1806–1837). A doctor and patriot, Ché-

nier was born in Lachine, Québec, and practiced medicine in the

village of St-Eustache. He played an active role in Lower Canada

assemblies of 1836 and 1837 that sought to boycott British goods and

to replace government appointees with elected officials. He was the

main organizer of armed resistance by Patriotes du Nord, who holed

up in a church, convent, and homes in St-Eustache. He was among

100 patriotes killed when British forces and militia under Governor

John Colborne attacked with cannon and grapeshot. Soldiers set the

church alight and shot 70 occupants when they escaped through win-

dows. The entire village was razed.

CHINESE CANADIANS. Profoundly important in building modern

Canada, in terms of labor, capital, and professional and social in-

stitutions, Chinese first came to Vancouver Island as artisans in

1778. Others came during the 1858 gold rush. In 1860, about 7,000

lived in British Columbia. They came in increasing numbers dur-

ing the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Most came

as contract workers. They came mainly from Guangdong province,

near Guangzhou (Canton) and Hong Kong. By 1991, their numbers

in Canada were well over 500,000. After 1885, they were charged a

“head tax.” British Columbia and Canadian governments sought to

restrict illegal immigration, particularly of Asiatics. On 1 July 1923,

“Humiliation Day” in Chinese Canadian history, Chinese immigra-

tion was suspended altogether; this legislation was repealed in 1947.

Chinese and East Indian Canadians gained the vote federally and

provincially in 1947. In the 1980s, Chinese came from Hong Kong in

increasing numbers. In 1996, China became one of the top countries

of origin of Canadian immigrants. Discrimination in education and

the professions resulted in late entry on the political scene. In 1957,

Douglas Jung was the first Chinese Canadian to be elected an MP. In

2001, there were more than 1 million Chinese Canadians, comprising

3.5 percent of the population. Chinese schools and benevolent societ-

ies exist in large numbers. On 22 June 2006, Prime Minister Stephen

Harper delivered a message of redress in the House of Commons,

offering an apology in Cantonese and compensation for the head tax.

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CHURCHILL • 131

CHRÉTIEN, JOSEPH-JACQUES JEAN (1934– ). A lawyer and

politician, Chrétien was first elected as a Member of Parliament in

1963 as a Liberal. He served as a minister in charge of various depart-

ments, including Indian and Northern Affairs, Justice, and Finance.

His budgets of 1978 were designed to encourage industrial growth

and to fight inflation. In 1980, he successfully led Québec federal

forces against René Levesque’s Québec separatist cause. After

Pierre Trudeau’s resignation in 1984, Chrétien distanced himself

from national politics and left public office. He was elected leader

of the Liberal Party in June 1990. On 28 October 1993, Chrétien

became prime minister as the Liberals won a decisive victory. He

was reelected on 2 June 1997 with a reduced majority. He was again

reelected 27 November 2000 with an unprecedented third majority.

His leadership style was avuncular but challenging. He is a self-

styled “little guy” from Shawinigan.” He resigned office on 12 De-

cember 2003 and was succeeded as prime minister and party leader

by his rival Paul Martin. He joined the law firm Heenan Blaikie as

counsel. His legacy may be summarized as supporting official bilin-

gualism and multiculturalism, but his government witnessed the ero-

sion of the welfare state. His government advocated neo-conservative

policies and cut transfer payments to the provinces. He neglected

Canada’s armed forces, the period of his government being the dark

decade of Canadian Forces history.

CHURCHILL. Situated on Hudson Bay at the mouth of the Churchill

River, the seaport of Churchill, Manitoba, has a long history. Seek-

ing that elusive waterway the Northwest Passage, a Danish expedi-

tion discovered the mouth of the river in August 1619. There the

two vessels wintered, but scurvy attacked the crew so fatally that

when the navigation opened in June 1620, only Jens Munk, the com-

mander, and two crew members remained alive of the original 65. In

the smaller vessel, the survivors made their return voyage, reaching

Norway in September 1620. Both Luke Fox and Thomas James,

other seekers of the passage, passed the mouth of the Churchill River

in 1631. In 1686, John Abraham on behalf of the Hudson’s Bay

Company (HBC) entered and explored that river, the first since the

days of Munk. He named it after John Churchill, later the famous

Duke of Marlborough, who in 1685 had been elected governor of

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132 • CINEMA

the HBC. In 1689, the company determined to locate a trading post

there, but a fire destroyed the establishment. It was not until 1717 that

James Knight, who succeeded in arranging peace between the Cree

and the Northern Indians, and thus placing their relations with the

HBC on a profitable basis, built Fort Churchill.

At that time, the sovereignty of Hudson Bay was in dispute be-

tween England and France, and it was deemed necessary to erect

a formidable fort to ensure English interests. The great stone fort

known as Prince of Wales was built on Eskimo Point, at the river

entrance. Its construction occupied nearly 40 years, from 1733 to

1771. It was to be the strong defense of the bay. In 1778, astronomer

William Wales was sent there to observe the transit of Venus over

the sun. In 1782, La Pérouse, in command of three French warships,

appeared before Port Churchill and demanded the surrender of Fort

Prince of Wales. Samuel Hearne, the governor, having only a hand-

ful of men in this stone fort, surrendered at discretion without firing a

shot. La Pérouse stripped the fort of everything of value, confiscated

and destroyed the property, burned the buildings, spiked the guns,

and blew up parts of the walls. The present ruins are much as they

were when La Pérouse left them; they are one of the most interesting

military remains on the continent.

In 1784, the HBC rebuilt Fort Churchill practically on the site of

the first post of 1689, about five miles upriver from the Fort Prince

of Wales ruins. Fort Churchill was a base for various exploratory ex-

peditions, and explorers such as Christopher Middleton in 1741 and

again in 1761 called there.

From Fort Prince of Wales, Hearne departed on his three explor-

atory journeys which in 1771 led to the discovery of the Coppermine

River. David Thompson was there in the winter of 1784–85. The

completion of the Hudson Bay Railroad in April 1929 made possible

the shipping of Canadian grains from Hudson Bay. Grain elevators

and port facilities were constructed. Churchill became a site of Ca-

nadian American rocket firing for atmospheric testing purposes. Its

population (2009) is about 1,200, 45 percent of which are First Na-

tions, 55 percent Caucasian. Ecotourism is a major sector of the local

economy, and Churchill is called the “Polar Bear Capital of Canada.”

CINEMA. See FILM.

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COLD WAR • 133

CLARK, JOE (1939– ). A journalist, university lecturer, and politician,

Charles Joseph Clark was born in High River, Alberta, and elected

a member of the Canadian Parliament in 1972. He became leader of

the Progressive Conservative Party in 1976 and was leader of the

opposition in 1980–83. In 1979, he formed a short-lived government

and became Canada’s youngest prime minister. His party could not

maintain the government on a fiscal bill, however, and he resigned

office 3 March 1980. His party lost the 1980 election to the Liberals

under Pierre Trudeau. Clark was defeated by Brian Mulroney in

the desperate party leadership struggle of 1983. In 1984, he became

secretary of state for external affairs and later served in the special

role as constitutional advisor during the Charlottetown Accord ar-

rangements. He made a political comeback in 1988. He was elected

leader of the Progressive Conservative Party. He reentered Parlia-

ment and was elected MP in Calgary Center in 2000. He left Parlia-

ment in 2004 and has since had stints as a professor and consultant.

CLEAR GRITS. A reform-minded political party mainly centered in

southern Ontario in the 1850s, the Clear Grits were determined on

political reform and promoted the concept of representation by popu-

lation, “rep by pop.” They also sought direct election to executive

posts and secularization of the clergy reserves. This party promoted

Canadian federalism and western expansion. After confederation in

1867, it formed a core of the Liberal Party. Important Clear Grits

included George Brown and the prime minister Alexander Mack-

enzie. See also ROUGES.

CLERGY RESERVES. See CONSTITUTIONAL (OR CANADA)

ACT OF 1791.

COLD WAR. Extending from 1945 until the disbanding of the Soviet

Union in 1991, the Cold War was characterized by remarkable ten-

sions between the United States and its allies on the one hand and

the Soviet Union and its allies on the other. Suspicions of Soviet

intentions began with the close of World War II and the race to get

at scientific and technical achievements of the defeated Germany in

1945. This was an era of marked espionage and countermeasures.

Real alarm at Soviet intentions was made clear with the revelations

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134 • COLUMBIA RIVER TREATY

of Soviet spying operations in Canada in what is known as the 1945

Igor Gouzenko case.

At the same time, the United States and Great Britain refused to

accept the extension and dominance of Soviet control, political and

military, over occupied states in Central Europe, notably East Ger-

many, Poland, the Baltic States, Czechoslovakia, and others. When

British political leader Winston Churchill made his Iron Curtain

speech in Fulton, Missouri, in 5 March 1946, he announced that

just such a curtain had fallen from Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in

the Adriatic. It now became clear that member states of the North

Atlantic Treaty Organization would be facing those of the Soviet-

dominated Warsaw Pact; both of these military alliances were forged

at this time.

Canada’s diplomatic posture at this time was a response to the

Gouzenko case, but it was also a reflection of its economic, cultural,

and strategic links to the United States and Great Britain. The U.S.

Congress’s House Committee on Un-American activities, first begun

in 1938, was active in the postwar era when hearings in the 1950s

led by Senator Joseph McCarthy probed communist subversion and

espionage in the United States. There was no comparable organized

political witch-hunting in Canada, but it made governments and

police authorities mindful of seditious activities in Canada. The posi-

tions of the Western allies and the Warsaw Pact countries became

irreconcilable and were made even more intractable by the Soviet

armed takeover of Hungary beginning 23 October 1956.

The influx of Hungarian refugees to Canada in consequence of

this development enhanced Canadian understanding of European

problems and strengthened anti-Soviet thinking and reportage in the

Canadian press. When the Soviets put the satellite Sputnik 1 into

space on 4 October 1957, the Cold War entered another phase, the

space race. Moreover, the Cuban missile crisis in 1962, the inva-

sion by Warsaw Pact forces of Czechoslovakia in 1968, the buildup

of the Soviet nuclear arsenal, and the expansion of Soviet air and sea

power gave confirmation of Soviet intentions. See also KOREAN

CONFLICT.

COLUMBIA RIVER TREATY. On 17 January 1961, Prime Minister

John Diefenbaker and U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower signed the

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COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS • 135

Columbia River Treaty for the cooperative development of the Co-

lumbia River, which runs through British Columbia and the Pacific

Northwest. The treaty, a result of more than 15 years of investigation

and negotiation, required Canada to build and operate three dams to

help the United States produce power at facilities downstream. The

United States would pay Canada US$64.4 million and give Canada

title to half the energy produced. The treaty did not come into effect

until 1964, after British Columbia decided to sell the power benefits

back to the United States.

COMMISSION ON BILINGUALISM AND BICULTURALISM,

ROYAL. See BILINGUALISM AND BICULTURALISM, ROYAL

COMMISSION ON.

COMMISSION ON NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE

ARTS, LETTERS, AND SCIENCES, ROYAL. See MASSEY

REPORT.

COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS. The Commonwealth of Na-

tions, formerly British Commonwealth of Nations, derives from the

British Empire. The Commonwealth emerged as a result of colonial

nationalism and the move toward responsible government. By

1931, membership was by free association. In the interim, however,

colonial autonomy had to be won, for Britain invariably wanted to

maintain uniform control over shipping, tariffs, armed forces, consti-

tutional arrangements, and foreign treaty-making. World War I pro-

duced a crisis: empire solidarity vs. colonial/dominion nationalism.

At the Imperial War Conference in 1917, at Sir Robert Borden’s

initiative, it was agreed that a redefinition of the British Empire was

necessary.

Anniversary celebrations in 1887 and 1897 of Queen Victoria’s

accession to the throne offered opportunities to Great Britain and

the colonial premiers to gather to discuss matters of mutual interest,

especially trade, communications, and defense. These events were

important in Canadian foreign policy making and in Canada’s growth

as an autonomous nation.

In 1907, a regular arrangement of intraimperial consultation was

agreed upon, with a secretariat and meetings every four years. Sir

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136 • COMMUNIST PARTY OF CANADA

Wilfrid Laurier required that Canada have prior consultation before

imperial commitment. In 1911, the state of European relations was

the focus of Sir Edward Grey’s address. In 1926, the Imperial Con-

ference accepted the Balfour Report definition of the Empire Com-

monwealth of that era. The report provided the dominions with equal

status, in no way subordinate to one another, and united by a com-

mon allegiance to the crown. In the British Statute of Westminster

(1931), these principles were extended to British law and adopted,

though not always immediately, by the dominions.

In 1930, the Imperial Conference rejected Prime Minister R. B.

Bennett’s call for imperial preferential tariffs. In 1932, at the Ot-

tawa Conference, bilateral arrangements only were agreed upon.

New principles of the Commonwealth were adopted after World

War II, including anti-racist government policies. In the history of

the Commonwealth, Canada’s role was prominent in several areas:

responsible government, federalism, judicial interpretation, early

creation of a dominion navy, plurality of official languages, and in-

ternational appointment to first national. Noteworthy, too, is the fact

that the first secretary general of the Commonwealth was a Canadian,

Arnold Smith. The Commonwealth of Learning, an institute of dis-

tance education and organized by the Commonwealth of Nations, is

headquartered in Vancouver.

COMMUNIST PARTY OF CANADA (CPC). Founded in Guelph,

Ontario, in 1921, the CPC exists in various guises and factions. It

was known as the Workers’ Party in the early days. Locked up in

Québec in 1937 and banned federally in 1940 under the War Mea-

sures Act, the CPC nonetheless gave Canadian labor many leaders

and was influential in the Canadian Congress of Labor. Among its

most devout followers were Fred Rose, MP (convicted in the Igor

Gouzenko spy case), longtime leader Tim Buck, and Norman Bet-

hune, active in the Spanish Civil War and Chinese wars. Beginning

in the 1950s, revelations about Stalin and Russian aims, of Soviet

interventions in Hungary and Czechoslovakia, and of Sino-Soviet

splits led to continual disaffections, divisions, and defections among

communists in Canada. The Cold War was fought at home in the

press. The mainstream press was decidedly anti-communist. Revela-

tions subsequent to the collapse of socialist and communist govern-

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CONSCRIPTION • 137

ments in Central and Eastern Europe and in the Balkans 1989–91

further discredited communism in theory and in practice. The CPC

remains active in disseminating certain information about femi-

nist, aboriginal, pacifist, and tenants’ rights and interests. See also

MACKENZIE-PAPINEAU BATTALION.

COMPAGNIE DES CENT-ASSOCIÉS. Organized by the zealous

imperialist Cardinal Richelieu in 1627, the Compagnie des Cent-

Associés (Hundred Associates Company) was a French colonizing

company that aimed to settle 4,000 colonists in New France within

a 15-year period. The company received a French monopoly of the

fur trade and French claims to North America, from Arctic waters to

the Florida gulf. The government promised protection for three years.

Pirates captured the first two fleets of emigrants. Québec fell to Eng-

lish forces in 1629, though returned by treaty in 1632. The colony

faltered. The charter was revoked in 1663 when Canada became a

royal province. Only 2,500 settlers came out under the auspices of

the company.

CONSCRIPTION. An issue of great moment in 20th-century Cana-

dian history, specifically during World Wars I and II, conscription

raises emotions to this day. In terms of historical debate, the com-

parative futility or benefit of the imposed raising of manpower for

Canadian Forces also reveals strong divisions.

At the outset of World War I (August 1914), Canada’s military

strength in numbers consisted mainly of standing forces and militia

units. Regiments were soon raised by private subscription (Princess

Patricia’s Light Infantry, for instance), and voluntary enlistments

sufficed to fill the ranks of new battalions completed in Edmonton,

Winnipeg, and Toronto, for instance. The First Canadian Division,

nominally 20,000 forces, sailed for Europe October 1914; three

others were to follow. By 1917, 233,000 volunteers had enlisted in

components of the Canadian Army, including artillery, engineer,

medical, and army service corps. Prime Minister Robert Borden

set a target of 500,000. Only 13,000 service members were French

Canadians. The first and last entirely French unit, the Royal 22nd

Battalion (now Regiment), was formed October 1914. English Ca-

nadians claimed that French Canadians were shirking their duty.

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138 • CONSCRIPTION

Borden conducted National Registration of all able-bodied men (the

old Militia Act called for males 16 to 60 years to be liable for call-up,

but this was not instituted). Then, in May 1917, he announced that

compulsory military service would be instituted.

The Military Service Act, 1917, allowed the draft of persons age

20 to 35. Borden then formed the Union government, though Wilfrid

Laurier and other followers (including Mackenzie King) would

not join it. The Military Voters’ Act and the Wartime Elections Act,

which extended the vote, or franchise, to mothers, wives, and sisters

of soldiers, dead or alive, enlarged the government’s popular support.

Persons of enemy origins naturalized after 1902 were disqualified from

the vote and, naturally, exempt from conscription. The Union govern-

ment won 153 seats on 17 December 1917, but 62 of Québec’s 65

seats went to Laurier. In Québec, the provincial legislature considered

secession, and in the provincial capital there were anti-Ottawa riots.

In terms of numbers raised, 400,000 were registered and 100,000

drafted, of whom 24,000 went to France. An intended Fifth Division

was never sent overseas. The effects of this issue were deep seated

and raised themselves in the next conflict. In fact, anti-war sentiment

and Canadian isolation were fueled by the same legacy. The war had a

profound impact on Canadian identity and a postwar search for status

in the British Empire or Commonwealth of Nations.

In September 1939, Canada was at war against Germany, Italy,

and Japan. Mackenzie King won the election of 26 March 1940

in a landslide. He and the Liberals had promised no conscription.

The National Resources Mobilization Act of 1940 authorized the

governor-in-council to make orders for persons to place themselves

at the disposal of Canada as being necessary to defend the national

interests. But this was not to include persons to be deployed overseas.

Under this act, government could control industrial and agricultural

production, prices, and transportation; persons could be drafted for

home service only. This remarkable legislation was designed to

uphold national unity by defusing the conscription issue. No one

wanted a repeat of 1917.

As the war progressed, the personnel needs of Canadian Forces

overseas increased. In April 1942, Mackenzie King adroitly sought

release from his promise through a national referendum: “not neces-

sarily conscription but conscription if necessary.” Sixty-four percent

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CONSTITUTION ACT OF 1867 • 139

of the population voted for; Québec, decidedly against. In 1944, Min-

ister of Defense Colonel J. L. Ralston insisted that conscription was

necessary. Mackenzie King could not ignore the pressures, and the

government called up 16,000 home-service draftees to be sent over-

seas as replacements for casualties. Riots occurred in army camps

such as Terrace, British Columbia, and in English-speaking Canada

there were many complaints against “zombies,” that is, persons who

refused to serve overseas. Again, the war revealed national divisions,

and this in turn represented the division between the international and

the isolationist desires of Canada’s people.

CONSERVATIVE PARTY OF CANADA (CPC). The CPC was

formed in December 2003 after a framework agreement of merger

undertaken by the Canadian Alliance led by Stephen Harper and the

Progressive Conservative Party of Canada led by Peter Mackay.

This is a reformulation of a centrist, right of center political group-

ing, known as the Conservative Party, that dates from the days of Sir

John A. Macdonald if not before. The CPC formed a government

on 6 February 2006 with Harper as prime minister. In the election of

23 January 2006, the Conservatives won 124 seats, the Liberals 103,

and the New Democratic Party 30. The CPC was reelected in 2008

with a slightly larger minority government.

CONSTITUTION ACT OF 1867 (BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

ACT). This act divided the Province of Canada into Ontario and

Québec and added Nova Scotia and New Brunswick to form “one

Dominion under the name of Canada.” The act set out the nature

and form of government, including a division of powers that gave

the federal power distinct control, under Section 91, of “peace, order

and good government.” It allocated powers to federal and provincial

governments. It also established minority language and minority

education rights. As well, it provided for the admission to Canada

of new provinces. It was amended many times. In 1982, the act was

incorporated into the Constitution Act of 1982. By establishing an

amending formula, patriating the constitution, and adding a Charter

of Rights and Freedoms, the constitution became, at last, a fully

made-in-Canada instrument of constituted government. See also

CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY; DOMINION OF CANADA.

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