Gough Barry M. Historical Dictionary of Canada

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170 • FAIRCLOUGH, ELLEN LOUKS

From Hudson Bay, overland explorations were made by Samuel

Hearne to the Coppermine River (1770). John Franklin made three

expeditions to northern Canada (1819–21, 1825–27, 1845–47). The

Northwest Passage may be said to have been discovered in all its

completeness by Capt. Robert McClure when searching for the

whereabouts of Franklin’s third expeditionary party.

The transit of the Northwest Passage was completed by Roald

Amundsen in his vessel Gjoa in 1903–06. Vilhjalmur Stefansson

made discoveries for Canada in the central and high Arctic (1913–

17), extending Canadian claims there. Similarly, Joseph Bernier

made maritime explorations of the northeastern Arctic. The Geologi-

cal Survey of Canada completed much of the discovery of Canada

in the later 19th and early 20th century. The Royal Engineers made

discoveries of road routes in British Columbia. Canadian Pacific

Railway surveyors explored passes in the Rocky Mountains for the

transcontinental railway. Aerial photography was used to fill in many

details to the map. Surveyors working for boundary commissions

made many contributions to discovery in such places as the Alaska/

Yukon border, the Great Lakes international boundary, and the

Maine/New Brunswick border. See also FRONTIER; FUR TRADE;

HENDAY, ANTHONY.

– F –

FAIRCLOUGH, ELLEN LOUKS (1905–2004). A prominent Pro-

gressive Conservative in the era of John Diefenbaker, Fairclough

was born in Hamilton, Ontario, and became a certified public accoun-

tant. She was elected to Hamilton City Council in 1946. Elected to

Parliament in a 1950 by-election, she was the only woman MP when

she arrived in Ottawa. Then, there were no separate washrooms for

female MPs. Fairclough, a member of the opposition, fought for pay

equity for women. When the Progressive Conservatives formed the

government in 1957, Diefenbaker reluctantly appointed her secretary

of state. (Diefenbaker snubbed her and spoke admiringly of only four

women: his mother, his second wife, the Queen, and Charlotte Whit-

ton, the redoubtable Ottawa mayor.) Fairclough initiated Dominion

Day (now Canada Day) celebrations on Parliament Hill. She also

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FEDERAL-PROVINCIAL CONFERENCES • 171

served as minister of citizenship and immigration, Indian affairs, and

postmaster general. At the same time, she was responsible for the

National Film Board, the National Gallery, and the Royal Canadian

Mint. Her most damaging political gaffe came when as minister for

immigration she narrowed the range of close relatives who could be

sponsored as immigrants to Canada, infuriating her Italian constitu-

ency. Diefenbaker then demoted her to postmaster general. She was

defeated in the 1963 general election and resumed an active ad-

ministrative life in Hamilton, at Hamilton Trust and Savings Corp.,

Hamilton Hydro, and Zonta International Women’s Group. She was

named to the Order of Canada in 1980 and the Order of Ontario in

1996. See also WOMEN IN CANADIAN HISTORY.

FAMILY COMPACT. The sociopolitical elite of Upper Canada

were known as the Family Compact. The term was coined by moder-

ate reformer Marshall Spring Bidwell, speaker of the House of As-

sembly in 1828. The Family Compact group controlled land grants,

seats on councils, and seats in the legislature. They monopolized

business and economic sectors of society and identified with the An-

glican Church. The Family Compact was a target for reformers who

wished to secularize the clergy reserves and sought financial support

for public education.

The Family Compact had the invariable support of the lieutenant

governor of Upper Canada. Reformers sought control of the “civil

list,” appointments on the public payroll. Protests sent to London

were ignored or set aside. Agitation and the armed Rebellions of

1837 in Toronto and southwestern Ontario resulted in a triumph

for the civil power. In 1838, Lord Durham was sent to the province

and elsewhere in British North America to investigate the cause of

grievances. The major reforms that were to come of the investigation

were not instituted until the late 1840s.

FEDERAL-PROVINCIAL CONFERENCES. In 1887, the first of

these conferences was held, convened by the premier of Québec,

Honoré Mercier. Resolutions passed called for an end to federal

powers of disallowance and for increases in provincial subsidies. Nu-

merous conferences were held subsequently, including, since 1960,

annual meetings of provincial premiers. First ministers conferences

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172 • FENIAN RAIDS

now mainly address constitutional and economic considerations, in-

cluding interprovincial tariffs.

FENIAN RAIDS. Also known as Sons of Ireland or Sinn Fein (“Our-

selves Alone”), the Fenians represented the Irish Republican Broth-

erhood, founded in New York in 1857. The movement espoused

violence in order to achieve Ireland’s independence from the British

Empire. Once established in Canada, the Fenians intended to negoti-

ate the independence of Ireland. Well financed, in 1865 the Fenians

had $500,000 in donations, and 10,000 U.S. Civil War veterans were

enrolled. A wing of the Fenian Brotherhood led by William Roberts

proposed attacking Canada. Michael Murphy of Toronto favored an

uprising in Ireland. In any event, a cipher telegraph sent to Murphy

summoning him to join forces with a raid on New Brunswick was

intercepted by authorities and he was arrested in Cornwall, Ontario.

Between the years 1866 and 1870, the Fenians attacked a number

of places in British North America but had limited success. They

captured Fort Erie but were forced to withdraw by the Canadian

militia resistance. Attacks in Québec and New Brunswick were

unsuccessful. Due to these mounted attacks, the British and Cana-

dian governments increased local defenses and forces, and the Royal

Navy watched for gunrunners. Coming at the end of the U.S. Civil

War, the Fenian Raids raised the issue of security with the Canadian

and British governments. A secondary effect was the growth of the

pro-confederation movement, especially in the Maritimes. It is be-

lieved that a Fenian murdered Thomas D’Arcy McGee, “the Pen of

Canadian Confederation,” in 1868.

FILM. The earliest known film in Canada was made by Andrew Hol-

land in his Kinetoscope Parlour in Ottawa in 1894. In 1896, in Mon-

tréal, the first commercial screening of a motion picture in Canada

occurred. The screening device was the Lumière Cinématographe.

Commercial film held the main position thereafter. Ethnographer

Edward Curtis made In the Land of the Head-Hunters (1914), a rep-

resentation of Northwest Coast peoples. Robert Flaherty’s 1922 Na-

nook of the North followed the life of an Inuit family, documenting

trails and tribulations. Commercial cinema was dominated by British

and American productions, and the 1920s and 1930s witnessed an ex-

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FLAG OF CANADA • 173

plosion in the number of movie houses. Then as now, the commercial

sector predominated.

In 1921, the federal government created the Canadian Government

Motion Picture Bureau, responsible for films produced for govern-

ment departments. These agencies struggled with the balance of

requirements presented by production, technical operation, distribu-

tion, and administration. Of all the Canadian achievements in film

and cinematography, the National Film Board (NFB), founded in

1939, is Canada’s unique contribution to the development of public

communication. Its achievements became notable cultural faces of

Canada in the world at large. It was early recognized as a leader in

the realm of the documentary film. The origins of the NFB date from

advice provided by the distinguished British documentary maker

John Grierson. Grierson became first government film commis-

sioner. During World War II, many Canadians became acquainted

with movies produced by the NFB.

Hollywood has always been the center of movie production in

North America, but Toronto and Vancouver have become major

venues for the filming of movies and TV serials. Tax laws have

aided this process. Canadian producers have won various Oscars for

distinguished films. Among the great producers are Norman Jewison

(Jesus Christ Superstar), James Cameron (Titanic), and Claude Jutra

(Mon Oncle Antoine).

FLAG OF CANADA. The Union Flag, and later the Red Ensign with

the Coat of Arms of Canada on the fly, were the national flags of the

growing Dominion of Canada at the time of confederation in 1867.

But in 1965, Canada created a new, distinct flag recognized interna-

tionally today. Much controversy exists about the origins of this flag,

but it now seems certain that in 1964, George Stanley (1907–2002),

the historian, a member of the faculty of the Royal Military Col-

lege of Canada, in Kingston, Ontario, wrote to John Matheson, a

member of the parliamentary flag committee in Ottawa, suggesting

an easily identifiable flag. Stanley pointed out to Matheson that the

Royal Military College of Canada’s red-white-red design suggested

such distinctiveness. Stanley wanted something that would avoid the

use of national or racial/ethnic symbols that are of a divisive nature.

Thus the Union flag and the Fleur-de-lis would be excluded. The

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174 • FLEMING, SANDFORD

beaver was considered, but the State of New York had adopted it,

and the beaver did not garner enough support. There was consider-

able opposition to the adoption of the maple leaf, primarily because

it would replace the venerable “red duster.” Many had fought under

that flag, “for king, country, and empire.” Veterans groups, in par-

ticular, opposed the introduction of a new flag.

In any event, the current design, showing a red maple leaf on a

white background and flanked by red vertical stripes was selected and

modified by heralds and designers. The flag was officially adopted

by the House of Commons and Senate in December 1964. It was

proclaimed by Queen Elizabeth II, with effect on 15 February 1965.

In 1995, Prime Minister Jean Chrétien officially recognized Stanley

as the “father of Canada’s flag.” See also ARMS OF CANADA.

FLEMING, SANDFORD (1827–1915). In 1897, Fleming, the “time

lord,” was knighted for his proposal outlining a worldwide uniform

system for reckoning time. His concept of “standard time” brought

him international recognition. A brilliant, energetic innovator, Flem-

ing was a professional engineer, surveyor, mapmaker, engraver, and

writer of note. Born in Kirkcaldy, Scotland, he immigrated to Canada

in 1845, settling in Peterborough, Ontario, and within five years he

was a recognized surveyor and lithographer, making maps of cities

and harbors. He moved to Toronto, where in 1849 he assisted in

founding the Canadian Institute (for the promotion of science, his-

tory, and national achievements). Two years later, he designed the

first Canadian postage stamp, with the beaver as central motif. He

was also the builder of the Intercontinental Railway. As chief en-

gineer (1871–80) of the Canadian Pacific Railway, he conducted

surveys for a transcontinental route. For 35 years, he was titular

chancellor of Queen’s University. He devised and facilitated world

standard time (Prime Meridian Conference of 1884). He was also

instrumental in the imperial project for the Pacific Cable.

FOREIGN POLICY. As of 1867, the year of the Canadian confed-

eration, Canadian foreign policy was directed from the seat of em-

pire, London, England. All matters relating to boundaries with the

United States, Russia, and France were the purview of the Colonial

(and later the Dominions) Office and particularly the Foreign Of-

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FOREIGN POLICY • 175

fice. Canada was a cardinal component of the British Empire and in

no way master of its own house as far as external affairs was con-

cerned. Yet London did consult with Ottawa on vital matters such

as water boundaries, fisheries, and marine matters such as naviga-

tion and patrols. The Royal Navy was the shield of Canada and of

the empire and administered by a peculiarly unique administration,

the Admiralty, that was almost an entity unto itself. But Canada

then only consisted of four provinces, and the rest of the jurisdic-

tions that grew into the Canada of today were still answerable to

the Colonial Office. For these reasons, autonomy of foreign policy

was as impossible as it was retardant of growth. But the resolu-

tion of the Alaska boundary dispute and the Bering Sea Pelagic

Sealing question, both with the United States, cleared the way for

politicians in Ottawa to seek greater control of Canadian matters.

The South African War (Boer War), for instance, was an imperial

small war, but Canada made its own decision as to how it should,

militarily, come to the aid of the British Empire. Canada ended up

sending a military force to secure South Africa from the runaway

Boer republics and their allies.

World War I was a defining moment, for made-in-Canada deci-

sions defined the type and degree of military forces Canada sent to

Europe. In 1919, Canadian forces were sent to Siberia in an attempt

to save White Russians from total defeat, an unsuccessful measure.

Canada signed the Treaty of Versailles as a member of the British

Empire, however, not as a sovereign power. The toils and sacrifices

of World War I led to a period of isolation in Canadian foreign

policy and an adherence to the work of the League of Nations, of

which Canada was a member, and the International Labor Organiza-

tion headquartered at Geneva. The rise of Japan after 1918 was of

concern. Canada joined the United States in pushing the British to

abrogate the Anglo-Japanese Alliance in 1921, an important initia-

tive of foreign policy. So was the Halibut Treaty, signed with the

United States in 1922. Great Britain permitted Canada to negotiate

this treaty without let or hindrance. The Department of External Af-

fairs, the genesis of which occurred in 1906, became a powerful and

prestigious office of state, led by such powerful persons as Oscar

Douglas Skelton and Gordon Robertson. In 1928, the Canadian In-

stitute of International Affairs was founded to provide nonpartisan

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176 • FOREIGN POLICY

discussion of an educational nature of international matters, espe-

cially those that concern Canada.

Of all the moves toward diplomatic autonomy in this era, the 1931

Statute of Westminster did the most to define Canada, and other

British dominions that chose to opt in to its terms, as an equal and

autonomous country within the British Commonwealth of Nations,

in no way subservient to the United Kingdom in any aspect of its

internal or external affairs. This was a giant step forward and can

be taken to be the charter of Canadian foreign policy development.

Thus, in 1939, Canada declared war on Germany and in 1941 did so

similarly against Japan. It also independently declared war on Italy

and on other countries. Canadian foreign policy during World War

II was completely in accord with Anglo-American relations.

After the war, seeking to continue its multilateral partnerships

for security and progress, Canada became a member of the United

Nations (UN). It joined North American Air Defense Command

(NORAD), with its integrated defense systems for North American

security. When a UN resolution was passed condemning North Ko-

rea for invading South Korea, Canada responded to this emergency

with army, air force, and navy units all under the flag of the UN.

This set a pattern for other such police roles and peacekeeping ar-

rangements. Under Prime Minister Lester Pearson, a giant in for-

eign policy initiatives, peacekeeping arrangements were developed

for Gaza. Canada refused to back Great Britain and France in the

Suez Crisis in 1956, taking an independent view that more often

than not seemed similar to that of the United States but with less

strident and censorious tones. Canada did not go to war in Vietnam

but acted as diplomatic messenger. When the terrorist attacks of 11

September 2001 occurred, Canada supported the U.S measures for

border security and new defense commands. Similarly, it joined in

the “war on terror” and became prominent at Kabul then Kandahar

in measures to stabilize Afghanistan, provide means of reconstruc-

tion, and rout the Taliban. Canadian commitments of a military

nature in Afghanistan, scheduled through 2011, are under North

Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) arrangements.

In all these ways, Canada can be seen as strongly attached to

supranational causes, notably the UN and the NATO, and these are

means of giving expression to Canada’s commitment to world peace

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FORT CHAMBLY • 177

and security. But Canada decides what positions it will take and is

not easily led by even the closest of allies. Canada’s decision not to

join the U.S.-led coalition to invade Iraq in 2003 is the most power-

ful example of this. Canada’s foreign policy continues to focus on

the protection of the Canadian homeland, including coasts, waters,

and the Northwest Passage, claimed by Canada as its own (a position

not accepted by the United States). Canada maintains embassies and

consulates in all the most important countries of the world and has an

active presence in New York at the UN and in Brussels for the Eu-

ropean Union. See also ALLIANCES; CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS;

KOREAN CONFLICT; PERSIAN GULF WAR; SPANISH CIVIL

WAR.

FORT CHAMBLY. At the foot of the Richelieu rapids, Québec,

stands Fort Chambly, constructed at the turn of the 18th century.

The present-day fort is the fourth on this site. The first, a wooden

structure, was built during the wars between the French and Iroquois

that marked the second half of the 17th century. Subsequent battles

between French and English led to the construction of a stone fort in

1709–11. The structure was to become the largest fortification along

the Hudson-Champlain-Richelieu corridor. French troops erected a

European-style fort capable of resisting numerically superior forces

and a field artillery. Nonetheless, it fell into British hands in 1760

during the Seven Years War. In 1775, the Americans invaded

Canada and occupied Fort Chambly for several months. The War

of 1812 brought further hostilities between Canada and the United

States. The British occupied the fort sporadically until abandoning

it in 1860. In 1876, all of the military buildings of Chambly were

auctioned off except for the fort and the guardhouse.

Due to the efforts of Joseph-Octave Dion, the remains of the

fortress, which had greatly deteriorated, were saved. Parks Canada

restored the structure in 1983. A few hundred meters from Fort

Chambly is the Chambly Canal. Construction on it began in 1831

but work was interrupted by financial problems, a cholera epidemic,

and the Patriotes’ rebellion, thus delaying inauguration of the canal

until 1843. The Chambly Canal played a vital role in the export of

Canadian forest products to the United States. For close to a century,

many heavily laden barges made their way down its waters.

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178 • FORT FRANKLIN

FORT FRANKLIN. A Dene community in the Inuvik region of the

Northwest Territories, Fort Franklin is at the southernmost limit of

the Hare tribe’s ancient territory. Once a North West Company and

Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) trading post, it was a supply depot

and winter headquarters for naval explorer John Franklin in 1825–

27. Discovery of pitchblende at Port Radium and oil at Norman

Wells in the 1920s made Great Bear Lake and Great Bear River into

vital trading routes. A Roman Catholic mission, Federal Day School,

and reopened HBC post were developments beginning in 1949.

FORT GEORGE. A major fort on the Niagara frontier during the War

of 1812, Fort George was of critical importance to the defense of

Upper Canada. Overlooking the American Fort Niagara across the

Niagara River, and commanding a view of the river, the bastion of

the fort is its largest structure. Below the bastion were storehouses

and wharves of Navy Hall, local headquarters for the Royal Navy

(later the interim headquarters of the governor of Upper Canada).

In May 1813, American artillery bombardment and naval gunfire

reduced the fort to a smoking ruin. The outnumbered British gar-

rison was obliged to withdraw. American army engineers refortified

the spot and occupied it during the summer and autumn of 1813. In

December, the Americans abandoned the fort, burned the town of

Newark, and retreated to Fort Niagara. The British then reoccupied

Fort George and reestablished control on the Niagara frontier in that

area. Fort George fell into ruin and was abandoned in 1820. The

powder magazine (built in 1796) was the only fort building to survive

the War of 1812 and the ensuing years of neglect. Meantime, British

engineers constructed Fort Mississauga at the river mouth and But-

ler’s Barracks on the plains to replace Fort George. A Parks Canada

site, Fort George was reconstructed to its pre-1813 appearance and in

1950 was officially opened to the public.

FORT MALDEN. Fort Malden, a British post in Ontario, was pivotal

in defense of this area during the conflicts that shaped late 18th- and

early 19th-century Canada. Fort Malden National Historical Site

preserves the remnants of the second British fort built at this loca-

tion. The first, known as Fort Amherstburg, was established near the

mouth of the Detroit River in 1796. A center of British operations

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FOX, LUKE • 179

during the War of 1812, it was destroyed by the British when they

were forced to retreat from the Detroit River frontier in September

1813. The U.S. Army occupied the ruins of Fort Amherstburg from

October 1813 until July 1815. The Americans began rebuilding the

fort almost immediately but were hampered by shortages of labor

and supplies. The Treaty of Ghent ended the war and stopped ad-

ditional American work on the fort. When the British reoccupied the

site in the summer of 1815, they inherited a smaller semicompleted,

earthen fortification that contained a few roughly built structures.

The British were slow to rebuild as postwar economies forced lo-

cal commanders to carry out only essential repairs or construction.

The fort’s Royal Engineers supervised construction of a new brick

barracks to replace a log structure left by the Americans. Also built

were a cookhouse, guardhouse, artillery shed, and storage buildings.

Despite these improvements, little was done to upgrade the earth-

works, and the post remained a fort more in name than in reality.

Reluctance to expend large amounts of money on Fort Malden was

partly due to British uncertainty about the future of the site. Through

the 1820s, various designs were suggested to improve or replace the

fortifications, but these plans did not take shape. With the lessen-

ing of border tensions between the United States and British North

America, the fort was allowed to decay, and the British regular

troops were withdrawn in 1836.

FORT PROVIDENCE. Established in 1786 at Wool Bay, Great Slave

Lake, by Peter Pond of the North West Company as an outpost

camp, Fort Providence was reopened by Alexander Mackenzie in

1789 and was a trading center for the Copper (or Yellowknife) and

Dogrib natives. It was abandoned in 1823. It was important as a

resupply depot and was intended as such for John Franklin’s first

expedition to the Arctic coast (1819–22).

FOX, LUKE (1586–1635). Navigator and Arctic explorer Luke Fox

(or Foxe), commonly called N. W. Fox, was born in Hull, Yorkshire,

the son of a noted seaman. Sea-bred from boyhood, he sailed on

Baltic, European coastal, and Mediterranean voyages. He then turned

to exploring Canadian northern waters. For his London backers, he

was to go to the South Sea, the Pacific Ocean, via a route west of

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