Gough Barry M. Historical Dictionary of Canada
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190 • GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA
In 1841, the Province of Canada (then comprising Ontario and
Québec), interested in the flora and fauna of the land, granted funds
to defray expenses of a geological survey of the province. Coal was
then a major consideration, and Logan, educated in Edinburgh, had
a background in coal and copper. He took up his duties in Canada in
1843, headquartered in Montréal. Geology and metallurgy went hand
in hand, and the means of recording measurement was surveying and
thus mapmaking. The preliminary findings were shown in 1851 at
the Crystal Palace Exhibition in London, an imperial and worldwide
celebration of scientific findings. In 1856, Logan was knighted for
his scientific contributions. He retired in 1869, leaving behind a great
legacy, for he had fulfilled his own instructions: that the findings
were to have economic advantages. Mt. Logan, Canada’s highest
peak, is named for him.
Logan was succeeded by Selwyn, who led parties into western
Canada, seeking out the mineral resources along the route of the
proposed Canadian Pacific Railway. In the north, on the Barrens,
geologist Joseph B. Tyrrell made important discoveries of the area
he said was “less well known than the remotest districts of Darkest
Africa.” Tyrrell, also a historian and editor, wrote about Samuel
Hearne, David Thompson, and other explorers. Albert Low, later a
director, explored Labrador and the Ungava Peninsula of northern
Québec.
George Mercer Dawson, later a director after Selwyn, was a ge-
ologist, botanist, anthropologist, photographer, diplomat, and poet.
He visited the Queen Charlotte Islands and also made important
investigations of the Yukon. Like other members of the Geological
Survey of Canada, he was well connected to the British scientific
establishment. The city of Dawson was named in his honor. He made
an important report on the Haida and published reports on Yukon
native peoples as well as on the Kwakiutl and Shushwap of British
Columbia. Robert Bell was the great administrator, but he gave way
to Low as director early in the 20th century.
Aerial photography aided the Geological Survey, as did the Great
Depression, when more than 1,000 persons were detailed to work
on the survey. The search for minerals during and after World War
II also spurred on the project. Throughout its history, the survey
combined practicality with scientific excellence. It is the custodian
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GITXSAN-WET’SUWET’EN LAND CASE • 191
of the geological heritage of Canada. It has international links with
other northern, circumpolar, and Commonwealth countries. It is also
engaged in environmental considerations. See also EXPLORATION.
GHENT, TREATY OF. A peace agreement reached on Christmas
Eve 1814 between U.S. and British commissioners to end the War
of 1812, the treaty restored the peace but was silent on issues over
which Great Britain and the United States had clashed. No refer-
ence was made to impressment of sailors, blockades, indemnities,
the right of search and visit, and other maritime differences. Nor did
its clauses refer to military control of the Great Lakes or a neutral
Indian barrier state (the latter being an intention of the British be-
fore and during negotiations). Clauses did apply to British demands
for treatment of Indians subsequent to the establishment of peace.
The treaty provided for the release of prisoners, a restoration of all
conquered territory, and the appointment of an arbitral commission
to settle the disputed northeastern boundary between Canada and the
United States. By mutual understanding, the question of the Great
Lakes and the fisheries were left open for future negotiation.
GILBERT, HUMPHREY (1539?–1583). English scholar and soldier
Sir Humphrey Gilbert believed there was a northwest route by water
across the North American continent that would lead to the East
Indies. He wrote an essay about his theory in 1576. In 1578, Queen
Elizabeth I gave him permission to sail in search of the Northwest
Passage. Gilbert returned to England after losing one of his best ships
and one of his bravest captains. He set sail again in 1583 in command
of another expedition. His half-brother, Sir Walter Raleigh, started
with him. Raleigh and his crew turned back two days after they left
Plymouth, but Gilbert kept on. He landed in Newfoundland on 5
August 1583 and took possession of the land in the queen’s name.
Thus Newfoundland became the first English possession in the New
World. On the way back to England, Gilbert and his crew were lost
in a storm.
GITXSAN-WET’SUWET’EN LAND CASE. A claim by two native
nations to the 58,000 square kilometers in the Skeena, Bulkley and
Babine watersheds, some 700 kilometers north of Vancouver was
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192 • GOULD, GLENN
at issue in the Gitxsan-Wet’suwet’en land case. The land covers 133
separate native areas. The case, brought by 51 chiefs, began in 1984.
It was rebuffed by Chief Justice Allan McEachern of the British Co-
lumbia Supreme Court in 1991. The BC Court of Appeal rendered
a split decision. In 1997, a Supreme Court of Canada unanimous
decision overturned McEachern’s ruling and ruled that aboriginal
title to land had never been extinguished there. The ruling has wide
implications for other areas in British Columbia. The Court also ruled
that oral history gives bands constitutional claim in the absence of
treaties. The area concerned in the land case had long seen resistance
to encroachments. In 1866, the natives resisted placement of tele-
graph lines. In 1872, they blockaded a river against miners, and in
1908 sent a deputation to Sir Wilfrid Laurier in Ottawa. In 1927,
they tore up surveyors’ stakes, and in 1986 began the Marshmallow
Wars, chasing fisheries officers away with a hail of marshmallows.
See also NISGA’A.
GOULD, GLENN (1932–1982). Pianist and composer Glenn Gould
was born in Toronto and studied there at the Royal Conservatory of
Music. He made his professional debut at age 14 with the Toronto
Symphony Orchestra. He was largely self-taught after the age of
19, when he began concert tours. He was awarded the Bach Medal
for Pianists by the Committee of the Harriet Cohen Music Awards,
London, 1959. Gould specialized in Bach, Beethoven, and Brahms,
but his interests, he claimed, lay more in the literature of music, in
composition, and in conducting. He was noted for unconventional-
ity—mittens, hand-soakings before performances, contortions and
hisses while playing—but his performance defied any definition
or description of audio eccentricity. Gould saw no sense in playing
music for its own sake, without conviction. Gould was arguably one
of the great pianists of all time, and his interpretation of Bach’s Gold-
berg Variations is a classic.
GOUZENKO, IGOR (1919–1982). A Russian cipher clerk at the
Soviet Embassy in Ottawa beginning in 1943, Gouzenko defected
to Canadian authorities in 1945 and provided information on Soviet
spying, the principal aim of which was stealing atomic bomb secrets.
His defection created a sensation; his information and documents
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GOVERNORS GENERAL • 193
revealed a major Soviet espionage ring in Canada. Ten people, in-
cluding Col. Nikolai Zabotin and atomic scientist Alan Nunn May,
were sent to jail. Gouzenko also implicated Alger Hiss, a U.S. State
Department official, as a Soviet spy, although his evidence proved
inconclusive. Canada provided Gouzenko and his family with a home
and new identity. A media commentator in disguise, he also wrote a
book about his defection, This Was My Choice (1948). This episode
marked the beginning of the Cold War in Canada. See also SECRET
SERVICE.
GOVERNORS GENERAL. The office of governor general is Cana-
da’s oldest continuous institution, dating back to 1608, when Samuel
de Champlain acted as governor of New France. (A list of Canada’s
governors general is included in the appendix.) Today, the governor
general represents the Queen as Canada’s head of state—opening
Parliament, swearing-in cabinet ministers, performing duties as
commander in chief of the Canadian Armed Forces, welcoming
dignitaries from around the world, and bestowing Canada’s highest
honors. The position is thus vice regal. The “head of state” status is
reserved solely for the monarch, who appoints the governor general,
although this is done on the recommendation of the prime minister
of Canada.
Canada has never had a resident monarch, though the govern-
ment is a “constitutional monarchy,” that is, a parliament-controlled
system with a monarch, or sovereign, as head of state. Since earliest
French days, Canada has been under sovereign power, first French,
then (beginning in 1760 with the Articles of Capitalization) British.
By various constitutional and statutory measures, Canada’s separate
status in the British Empire was established or achieved. In 1931, by
the Statute of Westminster, Canada’s equal status with Britain and
other self-governing dominions and colonies was acknowledged by
Britain. This statute came in consequence of a long, difficult road to
autonomy.
Beginning with the French era, Canada had governors or some-
times commanders in chief. When Lord Durham was appointed to
the office, he was named governor general as well as commander
in chief. The former title recognized the plurality of British North
American colonies or provinces (Lower Canada, Upper Canada,
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194 • GOVERNORS GENERAL
Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick); the lat-
ter title reflected the military nature of the position. Notably most
French and British governors were military personnel—invariably
army. Beginning with confederation (1867), the position of governor
general was recognized in the constitution. Beginning in the late
19th century, the British government appointed nonmilitary, or civil,
persons to the post. Governor general was one of the highest-ranking
appointments in British imperial administration. The viceroyalty of
India was more prestigious, and several Canadian governors general
later went to New Delhi (and Simla). The long list of governors and
governors general reads like an impressive who’s who of the French
and British aristocracy. With the Canadianization of the office (under
Charles Vincent Massey, 1952–59), diplomats and politicians have
held the position. The last British office holder was Field Marshal Rt.
Hon. Viscount Alexander of Tunis. The appointment of the Rt. Hon.
Michaëlle Jean, 27 September 2005, brought the first non-British or
non-Canadian-born to the office: she was born in Haiti and later im-
migrated to Canada.
The governor general has certain powers. And there are cir-
cumstances in which the office holder has to exercise independent
judgment. In 1873, John A. Macdonald’s government was granted
prorogation by Lord Dufferin, but only for 10 weeks. The government
subsequently fell. In 1926, prime minister Mackenzie King sought
dissolution of Parliament when he was facing imminent defeat on a
vote of confidence. Lord Byng refused. Mackenzie King promptly
resigned. Arthur Meighen, leader of the opposition, was asked by
Byng to form a government. He did so. In the subsequent election,
Mackenzie King succeeded in making Lord Byng’s behavior, not his
own, the issue in the subsequent election, which Mackenzie King won.
In December 2008, Stephen Harper gained relief when the governor
general granted prorogation, a reprieve granted again in 2010.
The governor general of Canada resides in Rideau Hall in Ot-
tawa. The office maintains a residence, or apartments, in the Québec
Citadel. Rideau Hall is the governor general’s working residence; it
was built in 1838 by a Scottish stonemason. The governor general
has a foot guard and band. See also CARLETON, GUY; FRONTE-
NAC; LA GALISSONIÈRE; METCALFE, CHARLES; MURRAY,
JAMES; PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM.
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GROULX, ABBÉ LIONEL-ADOLPHE • 195
GRENFELL, WILFRED (1865–1940). An English-born medical
missionary and author, Grenfell accepted the position of superinten-
dent of the Mission to Deep-Sea Fishermen. He began the Labrador
mission in 1892. From early beginnings, he organized five hospitals,
seven nursing stations, and three orphanages. His work attracted
widespread attention in Great Britain. He was knighted in 1927. He
was author of numerous widely read books.
GROSS ILE, QUEBEC. A heritage site, this rocky island in the St.
Lawrence River lies 50 kilometers east of Québec City. In 1847,
the peak of Ireland’s Great Famine, brought on by the failure of the
potato crop, 85,000 Irish shipped for Canada. Typhus traveled with
them. Gross Ile was the quarantine station serving Québec City, the
main point of entry. Of 100,000 people sailing to Québec City that
year—six out of seven of them Irish—5,000 died at sea. Another
5,424 were buried on Gross Ile. Between 1832 and 1937, more than
4 million immigrants entered Canada at Québec City. Inspectors
boarded incoming vessels, designating the sick to the island’s hospi-
tal and sending the healthy to preventative quarantine. The location is
cold, windswept, and forbidding. Graphic accounts remain of horrific
conditions from the 1847 tragedy. The station was originally founded
in 1832 as a safeguard against a cholera epidemic then spreading
from India to Europe to North America. The busiest year after 1847
was 1913, when 1,720 sick immigrants were treated.
Reduced immigration and medical advances led to the station’s
closing in 1937. History is full of quirks. During World War II, the
Defense Research Board developed biological weapons here; more
recently, the island was used by the Department of Agriculture. In
1984, Gross Ile became a Parks Canada historic site and is twinned
with the National Famine Museum of Strokestown Park, Ireland.
They serve as bookends for a tragic chapter of Irish history.
GROULX, ABBÉ LIONEL-ADOLPHE (1878–1967). Historian
and novelist Groulx, building on the traditions of others, portrayed
French Canada and Québec’s progress as a heroic struggle against
English domination. In doing so, he celebrated the clerical and agrar-
ian pasts of Québec. As a French Canadian nationalist, he portrayed
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196 • GULF OF MAINE CASE AND AWARD
the Québecois as victims of British and Canadian imperialism. His
most famous work was Notre Maître, le passé (1944).
GULF OF MAINE CASE AND AWARD. In October 1984, the Inter-
national Court of Justice (IJC), or World Court, drew a boundary that
divides one of the richest fishing grounds of the world. The bound-
ary was drawn “for all uses,” a noteworthy first. This was also the
first time such a ruling obtained with respect to a 200-mile exclusive
economic zone. In dispute since 1783, the Gulf of Maine fishery and
the Georges Bank have valuable scallop yields, herring having been
fished out or otherwise depleted and cod and haddock much reduced.
In 1979, Canada and the United States entered into a 10-year man-
agement deal, at the same time referring the boundary issue to the
World Court for binding decision. Four judges, in their ruling, drew
a 253-nautical-mile boundary in three segments: northeastern, joint
coastal, and open water. Canadians tended to be more satisfied with
the ruling. Canada gained the prominent scallop-rich area of Georges
Bank though was not awarded all of Georges Bank. The United
States requested a one-year moratorium on the introduction of the
boundary but Canada declined.
GZOWSKI, PETER (1934–2002). Author, journalist, and broadcaster
Peter Gzowski was a friend of millions by virtue of his long-running
Canadian Broadcasting Corporation radio shows Morningside and
This Country in the Morning. Radio was his medium. He was a coast-
to-coast host who introduced listeners to Canadian literature and the
arts, politics, everyday life issues of significance, and key matters of
the day. He was a true Canadian institution, a true patriotic (nonparty)
voice for the nation, a teacher, and an intellectual. Gzowski, it is wisely
said, made Canada a family. He had an incalculable and unique ef-
fect on the shaping of the Canadian identity in the late 20th century.
His charitable passion was encouraging literacy. He instituted Peter
Gzowski’s golf tournament to raise money for literacy.
– H –
HACKING, NORMAN (1912–1997). A premier marine journalist and
pioneering maritime historian, Hacking was born in Vancouver and
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HAIDA • 197
graduated in history (honors) from the University of British Colum-
bia. For 30 years, he was marine editor of the Vancouver daily news-
paper Province. He served in Canadian minesweepers and corvettes
during World War II with the Royal Canadian Navy Volunteer Re-
serve; he made 13 passages on North Atlantic convoy duty, attaining
the rank of 1st lieutenant. “The Admiral,” as dubbed by his chums,
was a great supporter of Canadian naval historians, was devoted to
the Vancouver Maritime Museum, and was a founding member of
the Canadian Nautical Research Society. He is best known for his
various histories of steam navigation on the British Columbia coast.
His book The Prince Ships of Northern British Columbia (1995)
recounts the history of Grand Trunk Pacific and Canadian National
Railways seaborne operations. He wrote an unpublished autobiogra-
phy, Hacking Aweigh.
HAIDA AND HAIDA GWAII. The Haida people are located on the
British Columbia coast, on Haida Gwaii, also known as the Queen
Charlotte Islands, and on adjacent Alaskan islands. Isolation on the
islands and dependence on the sea made the Haida great voyagers.
The large, deep canoes of the Haida were used extensively for raiding
other tribes. Smallpox at the end of the 18th century and smallpox
(again), alcohol, and venereal diseases in the 19th century depleted
the population. Many villages were abandoned. The population
concentrated at Queen Charlotte City and Skidegate. Many Haida
became Christians toward the close of the 19th century. Anglican and
Methodist missionaries established churches and schools. The Haida
strongly defended their aboriginal rights in hunting, fishing, and
occupation of land. The famous Canadian destroyer HMCS Haida
carries the name of this great people. See also INDIANS.
HAIDA. Canada’s most famous warship, the HMCS Haida was built
by Vickers-Armstrong Ltd. at Newcastle, England, launched on 25
August 1942, and commissioned under the White Ensign 30 August
1943. This Tribal-class destroyer had a long and active service in
the North Atlantic, Arctic, and English Channel during World War
II and the Korean Conflict, and elsewhere. Her “hottest” work was
with the 10th Destroyer Flotilla in the English Channel before, dur-
ing, and after D-Day. The ship was an escort for the Murmansk con-
voys. Its battle honors are: Arctic 1943–45, English Channel 1944,
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198 • HALIBURTON, THOMAS CHANDLER
Normandy 1944, Biscay 1944, Korea 1952–53. The Haida’s first
commanding officer was Comdr. H. G. DeWolf (later Vice Adm.
DeWolf, chief of naval staff). The Haida is berthed at Hamilton,
Ontario, as a floating museum and memorial to the Canadian Navy
and merchant marine of World War II. The Haida is the last survivor
of the famous Canadian, British, and Australian Tribal-class escort
or fleet destroyers.
HALIBURTON, THOMAS CHANDLER (1796–1865). Born in
Windsor, Nova Scotia, Haliburton, sometimes known as “Sam
Slick,” was an author, judge, and politician. He wrote many books,
including The Clockmaker, or Sayings and Doings of Samuel Slick
of Slickville (1836–40). He coined many sayings, including “barking
up the wrong tree.”
HALIFAX. Established as a deliberate act of British statecraft, this
fortified naval base and garrison was designed to strengthen Brit-
ish power in Nova Scotia (acquired as Acadia from France by the
Treaty of Utrecht, 1713). Specifically, it was designed as a coun-
terweight to the French bastion and maritime base of Louisbourg,
Cape Breton. In short, it was an anchor of empire. Louisbourg had
been returned to France after the War of the Austrian Succession, and
plans for Halifax were implemented by Governor Edward Cornwal-
lis in 1749 under directions of the British Board of Trade. From the
outset, Halifax was the headquarters of ships of the Royal Navy on
the North American Station (later North American and West Indies
Station), which often included ships stationed in Newfoundland
and Labrador waters. Admiralty House, now a base museum, was
the admiral on station’s house. Dockyards, repair shops, stores, and
construction yards grew with the base, and many ancillary industries
developed in consequence. Boasting a large harbor, Bedford Basin,
it was a fit anchorage for all warships of the world. It was defended
by guns emplaced at the entrance and at McNab Island. Equally im-
portant, it was a garrison town, with infantry and artillery companies.
Citadel Hill is a commanding presence above the town.
Joseph Howe, tribune of Nova Scotia, was born here and became
a prominent newspaper proprietor; he was also a champion of re-
sponsible government (first implemented here, a model for British
Empire colonial and dominion development). Here in 1839, local
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HARPER, STEPHEN • 199
merchant Samuel Cunard developed his famous shipping company,
with trans-Atlantic service and a precious mail delivery contract from
the imperial government. Halifax was additionally the colonial capi-
tal and is today the capital of the Province of Nova Scotia.
The city was incorporated in 1841, and during the 19th century,
prosperity continued if by fits and starts. The War of 1812 strength-
ened local trade and commerce. In the 1870s, the railway age began
in Nova Scotia, with links to New Brunswick, Québec, and Boston.
The naval base was transferred to Canadian authority in 1906. Hali-
fax is host to many universities, notably Dalhousie, Mount St. Vin-
cent, and St. Mary’s, and the Nova Scotia Institute of Art and Design.
The population in 2001 was 119,297. Halifax played a vital role in
imperial and naval affairs. As a shipping assembly point, it was note-
worthy in both world wars. The City of Halifax was deregistered in
1996 when the Halifax Regional Municipality was created. See also
HALIFAX EXPLOSION.
HALIFAX EXPLOSION. A collision between the French muni-
tions vessel Mont Blanc and the Belgian ship IMO on 6 December
1917 caused the munitions ship to explode. The explosion leveled
the heavily populated northern part of the city of Halifax, Nova
Scotia. The explosion was heard as far away as Prince Edward
Island. It was the largest human-made explosion until Hiroshima.
The blast killed 1,600 people and wounded another 9,000. Prior to
the blast, Halifax had been a major convoy port and naval base of
World War I.
HALL, WILLIAM (1829–1904). The son of former black slaves
brought to Nova Scotia from Virginia during the War of 1812, Hall
was born at Horton, Nova Scotia. He joined the Royal Navy in 1852
and won the Victoria Cross for bravery while serving with a British
naval brigade at Lucknow, India, in 1857. He later lived at Avonport,
Nova Scotia, where he died.
HARPER, STEPHEN (1959– ). The 22nd prime minister of Canada,
Harper was born in Toronto and moved to Alberta in 1978 to work
in the petroleum industry. He completed undergraduate and post-
graduate studies in economics at the University of Calgary and was
part of a cluster of western Canada neo-conservative voices calling
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