Gough Barry M. Historical Dictionary of Canada

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260 • MACKENZIE-PAPINEAU BATTALION, SPANISH CIVIL WAR

Compact, the governing clique. He neither understood nor supported

the responsible government movement; instead, he adhered to the

application of elective principle to the Legislative Council. He has

been called a firebrand but has also been proclaimed a beacon of

democratic thinking; in the 20th century, he became a beacon for

left-wing thinking and political agitation. The basis of his reforming

principle was direct accountability of officials and executive heads

sitting on council. In 1834, he was elected the first mayor of York.

In 1837, Mackenzie’s “Declaration of the Toronto Reformers”

sparked a rebellion in Upper Canada (7 December) that was small

and easily crushed. Following defeats to government forces at Mont-

gomery’s Tavern and Navy Island, Mackenzie scurried to safety in

New York State, where he was imprisoned for breach of neutrality

laws. He spent 13 years in exile. In 1849, he returned to Toronto

under an amnesty; he then staged a remarkable political comeback.

He served as mayor of York and was for a time (1851–58) a member

of Parliament in the Province of Canada. See also REBELLIONS

OF 1837.

MACKENZIE-PAPINEAU BATTALION, SPANISH CIVIL

WAR. The “Mac-Paps,” is the collective designation for some

1,400 plus Canadians who fought as part of the Fifteenth Interna-

tional Brigade recruited to assist the communist-supported Spanish

government against General Francisco Franco’s fascists during the

Spanish Civil War. The first Canadians in the conflict had joined the

Abraham Lincoln Battalion or the George Washington Battalion. An

actual Canadian battalion, formed in May 1937, was named in July

of that year for William Lyon Mackenzie and Louis-Joseph Pap-

ineau, leaders in the Rebellions of 1837.

In April 1937, the Canadian government passed the Foreign En-

listment Act, outlawing participation in foreign wars (this followed

the League of Nations Non-Intervention Committee ban on foreign

national volunteers). Also enacted was the Customs Act, which pro-

vided for government control over arms exports. The Mac-Paps were

an official embarrassment. Many moderate groups in Canada, includ-

ing some members of the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation,

Liberals, unions, and churches supported the Republicans. A Com-

mittee to Support Spanish Democracy was formed early but halted

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MACPHAIL, AGNES CAMPBELL • 261

sending troops; rather, it continued to recruit medical personnel.

Norman Bethune, the most famous Canadian there, created mobile

army medical units and a blood transfusion service. The recruiting

of combatants was left to the communists. The government refused

passports to those thought to be going to fight in Spain; Royal Ca-

nadian Mounted Police were sent to spy on leftists.

The Mac-Paps fought in five campaigns, including Fuentes de

Ebro, defense of Ieruel, the “retreats” of 1938, and the counterattack

across the Ebro River in the last summer of the war; it withdrew

from the conflict in September 1938, its strength savagely diminished

to 35. The battalion languished in history until the 1970s, when a

number of books, films, and plays documented its remarkable, tragic

story. The Mac-Paps were led by Edward Cecil-Smith, its military

commander, and Saul Wellman, union organizer and the unit’s politi-

cal commissar.

The number of Canadians said to have fought in Spain is stated to

be 1,448. Of these, 721 died in Spain. A monument to the Mackenzie-

Papineau Battalion can be found in Victoria, British Columbia.

A national monument to Mac-Pap veterans was erected in Ottawa

in 2001. It lists names of 1,546 Canadian volunteers who served in

Spain, including Mac-Paps, medics, and members of communica-

tions, transportation, and translation corps; it also includes names of

those who fought in other brigades.

MACNAB, ALLAN NAPIER (1798–1862). As a lawyer in Upper

Canada in 1826, MacNab began to build the connections that were

to aid both his political and business careers. He was a member of the

Upper Canadian Legislative Assembly from 1830 until the union of

the provinces in 1840. He led the loyal forces in Upper Canada dur-

ing the Rebellions of 1837, defeating William Lyon Mackenzie’s

group at Montgomery’s Tavern. He was a member of the Legislative

Assembly of Canada 1841–57 and served as prime minister 1854–56.

MACPHAIL, AGNES CAMPBELL (1890–1954). The first female

member of Parliament, MacPhail was born in Grey County, Ontario,

and was a teacher in small county schools in Ontario and Alberta.

After the federal government passed legislation in 1918 that allowed

women to vote and hold office, she ran as a Progressive in 1921 in

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262 • MANCE, JEANNE

the constituency of South-East Grey (later Grey-Bruce); she beat nine

men for the position. Her grasp of the issues, her determination, and

her appeal to audiences brought her victory and a place in the history

books. After her first term, she decided to run as an independent.

She won four more elections before her defeat in 1940. Although de-

feated federally, MacPhail ran for a provincial seat and won in 1943.

See also UNITED FARMERS.

MANCE, JEANNE (1606–1673). A lay nurse, Mance founded Mon-

tréal’s Hôtel Dieu Hospital and was co-founder of that city with Paul

Maisonneuve. She dedicated herself to the settlers and the welfare of

the colony’s soldiers. She was also financial treasurer of Montréal.

She died at the Hôtel Dieu.

MANITOBA. The easternmost of the three prairie provinces, Manitoba

has an Arctic coastline (Hudson Bay) and an ocean port located at

Churchill. Manitoba is commonly referred to as the Land of 100,000

Lakes. The vast number of lakes is a creation of the ice age. The land

is relatively level and all rivers drain into Hudson Bay. The capital

of Manitoba is Winnipeg.

Historically, Manitoba was inhabited by the Woods Cree, Plains

Cree, Assiniboine, Ojibwa, and Chipewyan Indians. Early European

explorers of this region used Hudson Bay to enter the area. British

explorer Thomas Button, the first to enter the region, spent the winter

at the mouth of the Nelson River in 1612–13. Jens Munk, the Danish

explorer, wintered at the mouth of the Churchill River in 1619–20. In

1670, Charles II granted the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) rights

to trade furs in the territory drained by rivers flowing into Hudson

Bay. The large territory was specified as Rupert’s Land in the com-

pany’s charter, 2 May 1670. England and France rivaled for the trade

of Hudson Bay, and in 1782 the French under La Pérouse captured

and destroyed Fort Prince of Wales, Churchill River. The British

never relinquished sovereignty. In 1812, the first farming settlement

was established. The Earl of Selkirk acquired a land grant from the

HBC and created the Red River Colony.

In 1870, Canada purchased Rupert’s Land, and the Canadian gov-

ernment created the province of Manitoba in the Red River Valley.

Opposition to the creation of the province occurred as the Métis, of

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MANITOBA SCHOOLS ACT • 263

mixed native and French background, fought against the Canadian

government. Two major rebellions (1869–70, 1885) by the Métis oc-

curred in this region; both unsuccessful. Provincial boundaries were

extended in 1881 and 1912 to create the present limits of Manitoba.

By 1878, the railway had reached Winnipeg and many people were

attracted to the area for its arable land. Many immigrants began

settlements in the province once the Canadian government offered

settlement packages in the late 1800s. In 1919, Winnipeg was the

focal point of the Winnipeg General Strike.

The winters in Manitoba are dry and extremely cold. In the sum-

mer, the temperature is warm and the climate relatively damp. The

precipitation level is the highest of the three prairie provinces in the

growing season. The economy of Manitoba is diversified. A major

contributor is agriculture. The main crop is wheat. Hydroelectricity

is readily available and copper and zinc are mined in the area. Win-

nipeg is the focal point for national transportation systems, both land

and air.

Manitoba has a 57-member provincial legislative assembly. Feder-

ally, Manitoba has 14 members of the House of Commons and six

senators. The population of Manitoba as of 2009 was 1.2 million.

See also EXPLORATION; FUR TRADE; MANITOBA SCHOOLS

ACT; RED RIVER REBELLION; RIEL, LOUIS.

MANITOBA SCHOOLS ACT. The Manitoba Schools Act was

passed under a campaign of D’Alton McCarthy and the Equal

Rights Association to advance the interests of nonsectarian public

education. This was a reversal of denominational schools as guar-

anteed by terms of Manitoba’s entry into Canada as a province in

1870. Outraged Roman Catholics in Québec brought a court chal-

lenge, but the Privy Council found in favor of the law. The Supreme

Court of Canada called for remedial legislation within the boundar-

ies of the Constitution Act of 1867 (British North America Act).

The Conservative government introduced such a measure, but it

died with the end of that ministry. Wilfrid Laurier’s government

brought about agreement by negotiation. This allowed for denomi-

national religious instruction where 10 or more students with a na-

tive language other than English could be formed. Separate schools

were not reestablished.

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264 • MARITIME COMMAND

MARITIME COMMAND. See CANADIAN NAVY.

MARTIN, MUNGO (1884–1962). A Kwakiutl, or Kwagiulth, chief

and master carver and artist, Martin was born at Fort Rupert, north-

eastern Vancouver Island. At the time of his birth, many forces

were at work disrupting aboriginal ways of life and threatening their

existence. These included influenza, smallpox, syphilis, tuberculosis

and other diseases, alcoholism, and prostitution. Negative aspects of

the new culture were also taking a heavy toll of lives. Other pres-

sures were at work to limit the size of reserves and to extinguish land

claims. It was in this atmosphere, at the lowest ebb in aboriginal his-

tory, that Mungo Martin was born.

His great work, it is said, was to preserve the traditions and identity

of the Northwest Coast native culture. He played a major part in the

resurgence of pride in their culture. He learned to carve as a young

man, taught by his stepfather, Charles James. He looked more and

more to the ancient traditions as a way of countering the tightening

controls of government over his people. In the 1920s, government In-

dian agents and magistrates enforced the 1895-instituted ban against

potlatching (gift giving and exchange along with ceremonial danc-

ing). Indian agents and police confiscated masks and other ceremo-

nial articles belonging to Mungo Martin and others. Subsequently,

Mungo went underground, privately preserving the ceremonies, sto-

ries, dances, and traditions. The potlatch and ancestral arts survived.

In 1948, he restored poles at the University of British Columbia

and carved two new poles for Totem Pole Park there. In 1952, at the

request of the British Columbia government, he began Thunderbird

Park in Victoria. Here he made many replica and new poles. He

was a great mentor, teacher, and symbol to aboriginal peoples, and

was greatly admired by the settler population. His son-in-law Henry

Hunt, grandson Tony Hunt, and great-grandson Richard Hunt all

became great carvers and artists. He died, age 83, in 1962 and was

buried at Alert Bay.

MARTIN, PAUL, JR. (1938– ). Martin, a son of the long-serving

Liberal Senator Paul Martin Sr., was educated at the University of

Toronto. He rose in business circles to become president of Canadian

Steamship Lines. He entered national politics in 1988 and was the

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MASSEY REPORT • 265

member of Parliament for a Montréal riding from 1988 until his

retirement in 2008. He was minister of finance in Jean Chrétien’s

Liberal government from 1993 to 2002. In this post, he is credited

with changes to the financial structure of the Canadian government

and with reducing the country’s chronic deficit. Much infighting en-

sued in the party ranks, and Martin was the unproclaimed leader of

the insurgents. He succeeded Chrétien as leader of the Liberals and

became prime minister on 12 December 2003. After the 2004 elec-

tion, he retained power with a reduced minority government. In the

election of 2006, Stephen Harper and the Conservative Party of

Canada were brought into office, also with a minority government.

Subsequently, Martin retired from national politics and returned to

the corporate sphere.

MASSEY, CHARLES VINCENT (1887–1967). A university lecturer,

businessman, and diplomat, Massey was the first Canadian-born gov-

ernor general. A champion of culture, he stood in the forefront of an

attempt to frame a cultural model for Canada. He argued persuasively

that culture took precedence over forces of geography. Culture, if

taken seriously, would enable Canada to overcome its sectionalism

and, equally important, to thwart the forces of colonialism, past, pres-

ent, and future. Massey chaired the Royal Commission on National

Development in the Arts, Letters, and Sciences, whose report was

delivered in 1951. From 1952–59, he was governor general. A strong

Methodist in upbringing and conviction, he believed in the power of

education and of the educated citizen. See also CANADA COUN-

CIL FOR THE ARTS; MASSEY REPORT.

MASSEY REPORT. The Report of the Royal Commission on National

Development in the Arts, Letters, and Sciences, or Massey Report,

issued in 1951, is one of the great state documents of Canadian his-

tory—and stands beside Lord Durham’s Report, the Constitution

Act of 1867 (British North America Act), and the Statute of West-

minster as a matter of high order. The royal commission was chaired

by Charles Vincent Massey.

Between 1949 and 1951, the commission exhaustively examined

the nature and problems of Canadian life, including foreign cultural

(especially American) influences. It recommended the establishment

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266 • MCCARTHY, D’ALTON

of the Canada Council for the Arts (done 1957) and enhanced

government spending in the arts and cultural institutions, including

libraries and archives. It also recommended inauguration of federal

grants for higher education (instituted 1957). Some circles, very

much a minority, interpreted these as federal intrusions in provincial

responsibilities. The commissioners stressed that a national purpose

could be achieved by fostering the arts. They stressed, in the report’s

preamble, “that it is desirable that the Canadian people should know

as much as possible about their country, its history and traditions; and

about their national life and common achievements; that it is in the

national interest to give encouragement to institutions which express

national feeling, promote common understanding and add to the va-

riety and richness of Canadian life, rural as well as urban.”

In brief, the commission recognized two essentials: “the will of our

people to enrich and quicken their cultural and economic life” and “if

we in Canada are to have a more plentiful and better cultural fare, we

must pay for it. Good will alone can do little for a starving plant; if

the cultural life of Canada is anaemic, it must be nourished.”

McCARTHY, D’ALTON (1830–1898). McCarthy, from an Ulster

Protestant background, established the Equal Rights Association,

which sought to limit the use of French in Ontario schools and to end

acceptance of French as an official language in the Northwest Ter-

ritories. He was an ally of John A. Macdonald, but his call for the

use of force to maintain Anglo-Saxon Protestantism destabilized the

Conservatives, in particular those who favored accommodation with

French-speaking Canadian conservatives, the Bleus. McCarthy’s

campaign brought in the Manitoba Schools Act of 1890.

McCLELLAND, JOHN GORDON (1922–2002). A noted Canadian

book publisher, McClelland was born in Toronto and educated at St.

Andrews’s College and the University of Toronto. He enlisted in the

Royal Canadian Navy in World War II, serving first in Canadian

waters, and was mentioned in dispatches. He served as captain in

the Royal Navy’s Motor Torpedo Boat 747. After the war, he joined

his father’s publishing firm, McClelland and Stewart, and became

its president in 1961. His intuition, formidable energy, and commit-

ment helped him launch the career of many a young Canadian writer,

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MCDONALD, ALEX • 267

including Pierre Berton. The most significant English-language

publisher of Canadian life and letters of his generation, he founded

the New Canadian Library paperback series, designed to protect and

enhance Canadian literacy and historical work at a time of active

American takeovers of Canadian publishing houses. McClelland and

Stewart eventually passed into the controlling hands of the Univer-

sity of Toronto. McClelland was recipient of 11 honorary degrees

and was in 2001 made a Companion of the Order of Canada. See

also LITERATURE.

McCLUNG, NELLIE MOONEY (1873–1951). A suffragist, politi-

cian, and educator, McClung was born in Manitoba. She belonged to

the Canadian Women’s Press Club and the Political Equality League,

where she worked for female suffrage. McClung led a delegation

representing women’s groups before the Manitoba legislature to ask

that women be given the vote in Manitoba’s provincial elections.

Actions such as this led to Manitoba granting women the right to

vote and thus run for office in 1916. In 1921, McClung was elected a

member of the Alberta legislature. In government, McClung always

voted for social-activist legislation. She went on to become the first

woman on the CBC’s Board of Governors. In 1938, she was one of

Canada’s delegates to the League of Nations in Geneva, Switzerland.

She retired to and died in Saanich, British Columbia. See also PER-

SONS CASE.

McCRAE, JOHN (1872–1918). Born in Guelph, Ontario, McCrae

became a specialist in clinical medicine and pathology at McGill

University, Montréal. A volunteer medical officer (surgeon to 1st

Brigade, Canadian Field Artillery) in World War I, he also wrote

poetry, his best-known work being “In Flanders Fields,” first pub-

lished 8 December 1915 in Punch. In 1997, his medals were acquired

by patriot Arthur Lee of Toronto and given to McCrae House (now

a museum), where he was born.

McDONALD, ALEX (18??–19??). Born in Antigonish, Nova Scotia,

the larger than life McDonald was also known as “Big Alex” or “the

Moose from Antigonish” because of his size. He came to the Yukon

after working 14 years in Colorado, where he mined silver, and in

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268 • MCDOUGALL, WILLIAM

Juneau, Alaska, where he panned for gold. Although he had no

money originally, he eventually owned 50 claims and also became

known as “the King of the Klondike.” For a few years after the dis-

covery of gold, he was perhaps the wealthiest man in the Yukon. In

1899, he married Margaret Chisholm while he was in England. He

died some years later, in a cabin on Clearwater Creek in the Yukon.

At the time of his death, he was again impoverished.

McDOUGALL, WILLIAM (1822–1905). A lawyer, newspaper pub-

lisher, and politician, McDougall advocated inclusion of Rupert’s

Land into the territories of the Dominion of Canada. A Clear Grit

and strong advocate of confederation, he became the minister of

public works in John A. Macdonald’s cabinet. McDougall’s news-

paper campaign for the inclusion of Rupert’s Land marked him as a

Canadian imperialist and expansionist. He was one of the negotiators

who contracted for the transfer of Rupert’s Land into eventual Ca-

nadian possession. He was the natural choice to be governor of the

Northwest Territories. In 1869, the Métis of the Red River erected

a blockade to prevent his entrance to their assumed jurisdiction. This

set off the Red River Rebellion in 1870. Discredited, McDougall

gradually retired from office. See also MANITOBA.

McGEE, THOMAS D’ARCY (1825–1868). A journalist and politi-

cian, McGee was the editor of the Nation, a radical newspaper in

Ireland until 1818, when he was forced to flee to the United States in

1848. He came to Montréal, where he published the New Era from

1857 to 1867. He was a member of the Legislative Assembly from

1858 until 1867, then of the House of Commons until his death. He

was a member of the “Great Coalition” formed to promote confed-

eration and was a delegate to both the Charlottetown and Québec

conferences. Known as a great orator, he promoted the “new nation-

ality” and earned his place as a “Father of Confederation.” He was

murdered by a Fenian in 1868.

McLENNAN, HUGH (1907–1990). A novelist and professor, born in

Glace Bay, Nova Scotia, McLennan wrote the classic Barometer Ris-

ing (1941), about Halifax at the time of the great and fearful Halifax

explosion. Perhaps his most famous novel, Two Solitudes (1945),

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MCLUHAN, MARSHALL • 269

concerns separate English and French identities. He also wrote travel

books, notably one profiling the seven rivers of Canada. He was a

professor of English at McGill University, Montréal, and one of the

most important English novelists of Canada in the first half of the

20th century. See also LITERATURE.

McLUHAN, MARSHALL (1911–1980). Communication theorist

Marshall McLuhan was born in Edmonton and died in Toronto. He

studied at Cambridge University (Ph.D.) and became a professor of

English at the University of Toronto in 1946. Raised as a Protestant,

he converted to Roman Catholicism and always worked in Catholic

colleges or universities. He was famous for studies of how mass me-

dia affect thought and behavior, and for the concept “the medium is

the message.” He also coined the term “global village.” He regarded

himself as a grammarian looking at media biases and messages. He

was greatly influenced by the thinking of social scientist Harold

Adams Innis, who developed the staple trade thesis in relation to the

fur trade, railways, and communications (including trade networks)

of Canada. McLuhan’s revolutionary thinking did not catch hold in

his native Canada, but he was discovered by scholars and media-

watchers in the United States. About to decamp for the United States

and the University of Pennsylvania, he was kept in Canada by the

urging of the University of Toronto’s administration, who established

for him the Center for Culture and Technology.

McLuhan studied in particular the electric media, which were

competing with print. He argued that the integrating forces of electric

media shifted the uses of information away from the study of detail

and thence into the need to interpret the contexts of media form. He

distinguished between “hot” and “cool” media, the former being,

for example, print or radio and full of information, and the latter

telephone or television and less so. The former, too, involved less

involvement by the recipient than the latter.

McLuhan’s books include The Mechanical Bride (1951), The

Gutenberg Galaxy (1962), and Understanding Media (1964). Later

works are Through the Vanishing Point (1968), with Harley Parker;

The Interior Landscape: The Literary Criticism of Marshall McLu-

han (1969); and Take Today: The Executive as Dropout (1972),

with Barrington Nevitt. A world-famous communications innovator,

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