Gough Barry M. Historical Dictionary of Canada

Подождите немного. Документ загружается.

280 • NANAIMO

producer), Lois Marshall (soprano), Maureen Forrester (contralto),

Judith Forst (mezzo), Louis Quilico (tenor), Edith Wiens (soprano),

Isabel Bayrakdarian (soprano), and tenors Ben Heppner, Michael

Schade, and Richard Margeson. Instrumentalists include the cel-

ebrated Glenn Gould (piano), Monica Huggett (early music special-

ist), Jane Coop (piano), Angela Hewitt (piano), James Enes (violin),

Leona Boyd (guitar), and Erica Raum (cello).

In the field of music education a prominent breakthrough in pro-

fessional education occurred in 1886 when the Royal Conservatory

of Music was incorporated in Toronto. Its preparation of music teach-

ers, as associates, set nationwide standards in performance, theory,

harmony, counterpoint, music history, elocution, and performance.

Musical festivals developed in most cities, important for the raising

of local talents and the enriching of community life.

– N –

NANAIMO. The Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) had a trading post

at Nanaimo, on Vancouver Island in British Columbia. In 1849,

the Snuneymuxw chief Ki-et-sa-kun (“Coal Tyee”) told the HBC

about the presence of coal in the area. In consequence of coal being

commercially workable, the HBC erected the Nanaimo Bastion (still

in existence) as a means of protection, authority, and defense. The

earliest miners were brought from England. The town became known

for the export of coal, which by the 1870s had become substantial.

Robert Dunsmuir, later lieutenant governor of British Columbia,

established coal mines in Nanaimo harbor and later Wellington at

Northfield. Dunsmuir also built a steam railway. He sold coal to Brit-

ish warships and exported it to Puget Sound and San Francisco. The

Esquimalt and Nanaimo Railway was built. In 1887, the Nanaimo

mine explosion killed 148, the largest human-made explosion until

the Halifax Explosion. In the 1940s, coal was supplanted by lumber

as the main business. Nanaimo’s large harbor is an excellent boom-

ing ground for timber and lumber mills ashore. Linked to Horseshoe

Bay and Tsawwassen by ferries, Nanaimo is a hub city for central and

northern Vancouver Island.

10_506_Gough.indb 28010_506_Gough.indb 280 9/28/10 5:36 AM9/28/10 5:36 AM

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF CANADA • 281

Production in coal and timber, and also pulp and paper manufac-

turing nearby, dominated the 20th-century economy. Recently there

has been an increase in high-technology sectors, particularly related

to the Web and Internet. Nanaimo boasts the oldest continuous com-

munity band in Canada, founded 1872. The town hosts an annual

bathtub race during its marine festival and claims the origin of the

famous Nanaimo bar dessert. Nanaimo is also home to Vancouver

Island University. Perhaps Nanaimo’s most famous citizen is jazz

pianist and singer Diana Krall. The population is about 80,000.

NATIONAL ANTHEM. Until the 1980s, the national anthem of

Canada was “God Save the Queen.” On 1 July 1980, “O Canada”

was officially adopted as the national anthem by the Parliament of

Canada. It was the work of Calixa Lavallée (1842–1891), who was

prominent among the pioneer composers since the times of French

and British colonization but died in poverty. “O Canada” was first

performed 24 June 1880 at the Skaters’ Pavilion in Québec City.

The words were written by Judge Adolphe-Baile Routhier and were

designed to exhibit the great history of Canada; the pride, dignity,

and importance of patriotism; and the inheritance of Canada’s lands

and resources for the present generation and those of the future. The

work is a 28-bar march in 4/4 time. The first stanza is:

O Canada, our home and native land,

True patriot love in all our sons command.

With glowing hearts we see her rise,

The true north strong and free.

From far and wide, O Canada,

We stand on guard for thee.

God keep our land, glorious and free.

O Canada, we stand on guard for thee.

The illustrious deeds of the founders and builders of Canada are

stressed in the second verse.

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF CANADA (NRC). Estab-

lished in 1916, the National Research Council of Canada has been

the country’s leading research and development organization. It

10_506_Gough.indb 28110_506_Gough.indb 281 9/28/10 5:36 AM9/28/10 5:36 AM

282 • NEW BRUNSWICK

functioned in its early days in an advisory capacity to government

and was much involved with science in the service of war. In the

early 1930s, new laboratories were established in Ottawa. During

World War II, it grew rapidly in support of Canada’s war effort and

that of its allies. Basic and applied research in science and engineer-

ing was undertaken in the 1950s and 1960s, and assistance for in-

dustry was undertaken in the 1970s and 1980s. From the mid-1980s,

the NRC concentrated on partnerships and strategic contributions to

technological advancement and wealth creation. Specialized agencies

and services have grown out of the council, including the Defense

Research Board, National Science Library, Medical Research Coun-

cil, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council, Atomic

Energy Canada Ltd., and Canadian Space Agency.

An agency of the Government of Canada, the National Research

Council reports to Parliament through the minister of industry. It is

governed by a council of 22 appointees. Its mission is to support

national science and engineering activities, perform and stimulate

investment in research and development, and develop vital exper-

tise and knowledge. Its diverse facilities and programs are used by

thousands of scientists, engineers, and research organizations. It has

an information arm, Canada Institute for Scientific and Technical

Information, which offers one of the largest collections of scientific,

technical, and medical information. It also has a publishing arm,

NRC Press, one of Canada’s leading publishers of scientific journals.

It has, too, an Industrial Research Assistance Program and a Cana-

dian Technology Network.

NEW BRUNSWICK. One of the maritime provinces, New Brunswick

is bordered by Québec, the state of Maine, and the Atlantic Ocean. A

narrow land bridge, the Isthmus of Chignecto, connects Nova Scotia

with New Brunswick. Most of the interior plateau is forest covered.

The St. John River valley is rich in fertile soil.

The original inhabitants of New Brunswick were the Mi’kmaq in

the east and the Maliceet along the St. John River valley. Prior to be-

ing named New Brunswick, the region was a colonial establishment

called Acadia. Samuel de Champlain established the original settle-

ment on St. Croix Island. The French settled the area and developed

fur trading relations with the natives. Control of Acadia alternated

10_506_Gough.indb 28210_506_Gough.indb 282 9/28/10 5:36 AM9/28/10 5:36 AM

NEW DEAL • 283

between the French and British for nearly two centuries. In 1755, the

British forced the inhabitants of the colony, the Acadians, to swear

an oath of allegiance; those who refused were expelled. In 1763, the

British gained control of the colony with the signing of the Treaty

of Paris. When the United States gained independence from Britain

through the American Revolution, many Loyalists crossed the bor-

der from Maine to New Brunswick. The area became a province of

Britain in 1784, called New Brunswick. The name comes from the

family name of King George III. In 1867, New Brunswick was one of

the charter provinces of the Canadian confederation. The large pro-

portion of French-speaking inhabitants led to the province becoming

officially bilingual.

The climate of New Brunswick is diverse. The northern interior

experiences severe winters, while the coastal areas are influenced

by the moderating sea. The forests are the province’s largest natural

resource. A majority of the forest is softwood, making it suitable for

paper production. In the 19th century, great sailing ships were built

in New Brunswick, including the Marco Polo. The fishing industry

is also a major component of the economy. The province has some

deposits of silver, lead, zinc, coal, and potash. The main agricultural

production is potatoes. The pulp and paper and the food processing

industries are the main components of the manufacturing sector.

The capital is Fredericton; the major port is Saint John. The

legislative assembly has 58 members. Federally, the province is

represented by 10 members in the House of Commons and 10 in the

Senate. The population in 2009 was 848,329.

NEW DEAL. By 1935, Canadians, dissatisfied with the slow eco-

nomic growth—and the continuing Great Depression—cried out for

a new policy. R. B. Bennett and the Conservatives answered with

Canada’s New Deal. Bold in concept and scope and inspired by its

American counterpart, it was a collectivist onslaught against indus-

try and finance. It sought to improve the social state of the masses;

to gain government economic controls over trade, markets, owners,

and producers; and to institute social legislation for the protection

of the unemployed. It was presented when the sands of time were

running out on the Conservatives, who hitherto had generally fol-

lowed traditional policies of creation and retention. Its co-author was

10_506_Gough.indb 28310_506_Gough.indb 283 9/28/10 5:36 AM9/28/10 5:36 AM

284 • NEW DEMOCRATIC PARTY

W. L. Herridge, Bennett’s brother-in-law, who was Canada’s ambas-

sador in Washington, D.C. Herridge observed U.S. President Frank-

lin. D. Roosevelt’s New Deal firsthand and wrote, “This is the end

of an economic era. Capitalism will never again work in the old way.

The only system which can work hereafter is the system controlled

and guided by the state.”

In early January 1935, Bennett announced in five radio broadcasts

to the nation that society was to be overhauled from top to bottom.

There would be a “new deal” for everyone. His program sought so-

cial security laws, labor statutes, and economic controls. He intended

to implement the findings of the Price Spreads Commission against

price-fixing and to repair the economy along lines of greater social

justice and distribution of national income. Legislation passed at the

parliamentary session included the Minimum Wages Act, the Limita-

tion of Hours of Work Act, the Unemployment and Social Insurance

Act, and the Natural Products Marketing Act.

The 1935 election was fought over these issues. Mackenzie King

and the Liberal Party promised reduced tariffs, a trade treaty with

the United States, marketing reforms, new unemployment insurance,

and securities control. This policy was far less daring than Ben-

nett’s, and coming from a reform party, it was more credible. “King

or Chaos” was a useful Liberal slogan that year. The Conservatives

were roundly defeated. King took the New Deal legislation to the

courts. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council found most of it

to be ultra vires, or beyond the authority of the federal Parliament, on

grounds that it affected the property and civil rights of the provinces.

This was another example of the Privy Council adopting an interpre-

tation of the Constitution unfavorable to strong central government.

Accordingly, it can be seen as a victory for “provincial rights.” It

remained for King to implement much of the same legislation by the

end of the decade, once the necessary constitutional amendment was

adopted. The Conservatives subsequently disappeared as a major

political force for two decades.

NEW DEMOCRATIC PARTY (NDP). The NDP was established in

1961 out of the old Cooperative Commonwealth Federation (CCF).

In 1932 in Calgary, labor interests, farmers, church leaders, and oth-

ers met to plan a socialist party based on wide-ranging and radical as-

10_506_Gough.indb 28410_506_Gough.indb 284 9/28/10 5:36 AM9/28/10 5:36 AM

NEW DEMOCRATIC PARTY • 285

sumptions. In Regina, in 1933, the inaugural convention of the CCF

adopted its charter document, the Regina Manifesto, which called

for economic planning, centralized fiscal control, price stabilization,

and public control over communications and natural resources. The

manifesto promised to “eradicate capitalism,” called for a welfare

state, and declared that “the first step to a socialized economy” would

be creation of a national planning commission—consisting of econo-

mists, engineers, and statisticians assisted by appropriate technical

staff—to run the Canadian economy. The commission would plan

the production, distribution, and exchange “of all goods necessary

to the efficient functioning of the economy.” A national investment

board would replace Canada’s “financial machinery,” that is, its

banks, currency, credit, and insurance. It would “direct the unused

surpluses of production for socially desired purposes as determined

by the national planning commission.” The Manifesto was written in

advance of the convention by socialist elites, including the Oxford-

educated Methodist minister James Shaver Woodsworth. “The

untrained masses,” he explained, “are incompetent to pass judgment

upon the complicated problems of capitalism.”

The party rose to opposition status in British Columbia and Sas-

katchewan but was late to start in the Maritimes and Québec. The

CCF became the official opposition in Ontario in 1943. In 1944, un-

der the leadership of T. C. Douglas, the CCF triumphed in Saskatch-

ewan, where the first state Medicare plan in Canada was introduced.

The CCF pushed the Liberal Party further to the left and obliged

them to adopt various social welfare measures more fully and more

quickly. Similarly, the CCF faced internal divisions, and Liberal poli-

cies forced it to abandon the most doctrinaire elements of its Regina

Manifesto in 1956, when the CCF officially abandoned this socialist

creed, exchanging it for Keynesianism, a merely statist creed.

In 1961, the party was renamed the New Democratic Party, with

Douglas as the leader. The new party contained representation from

the Canadian Labor Congress. In 1969, the NDP was elected in Man-

itoba. In 1972, a group of radicals called “the Waffle” were expelled

from the party ranks, and in the same year, the NDP kept the federal

Liberal minority in power. In the 1980s, the party became more cen-

tralist under the leadership of Ed Broadbent and Audrey McLaugh-

lin. Provincial governments were won in British Columbia and

10_506_Gough.indb 28510_506_Gough.indb 285 9/28/10 5:36 AM9/28/10 5:36 AM

286 • NEWFOUNDLAND

Ontario. This third party of Canadian federal politics plays a critical

and sometimes spoiler role. Seldom electing more than 40 persons

to the House of Commons, it portrays itself nonetheless as the heart

of the Left in Canadian politics, distancing itself as much from the

Liberals as from the Conservatives. Under leader Jack Layton, it

joined the ill-fated, short-lived Opposition Coalition of December

2008, and its support for the besieged minority government in 2009

gave it a new lease on life.

NEWFOUNDLAND. The island of Newfoundland (10th largest island

in the world), in the Atlantic Ocean, was joined with the mainland

area Labrador in 1949 to make up the Province of Newfoundland

and Labrador, the last province to join the confederation. Newfound-

land is Canada’s easternmost land. The province is noted for its rocky

surface and heavily forested areas.

The province has a long, rich history. The Norse Vikings settled

the area briefly in the 10th century. In 1497, the explorer John Cabot

was the first European to rediscover the area. In 1558, the first set-

tlers arrived in Newfoundland aboard the brig Hawke. On 5 August

1583, Humphrey Gilbert claimed the land of Newfoundland for

England. This land would become the first colony of England in

America. As in Acadia, the British and French fought repeatedly over

this land. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 gave Britain full control of

Newfoundland. The small islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon off the

south coast of Newfoundland were ceded to France and still remain

under French control. St. John’s, the colonial capital, was a nexus of

the cod fishery and a naval base.

In 1855, Newfoundland became a full British colony with respon-

sible government and thus had dominion status. This lasted until the

Great Depression of the 1930s. The colony could not sustain itself

economically, which resulted in the British government’s 1934 deci-

sion to appoint a commission to govern the colony. Large air bases

were built at Gander on Newfoundland and at Goose Bay in Labrador

in World War II. The region acquired great strategic significance

during that war. In 1948, Newfoundland voters in a referendum fa-

vored joining Canada. In 1949, Newfoundland and Labrador gained

full provincial status.

10_506_Gough.indb 28610_506_Gough.indb 286 9/28/10 5:36 AM9/28/10 5:36 AM

NEW FRANCE • 287

The Beothuk were the original inhabitants of the island of New-

foundland and fought diligently against the invasion of Europeans,

but in 1829 they became extinct. Many different native groups

inhabited Labrador, such as the Inuit, Mi’kmaq, Naskapi, and

Montagnais.

The province has an abundance of natural resources. Wild riv-

ers provide for hydroelectricity, minerals are mined from the pre-

Cambrian rock, the forests provide much wood, and a fishing indus-

try has been established from the supplies of the Atlantic. In the past,

the province relied on the fishing industry to stimulate the economy,

but as of 2000, the cod fishery was virtually closed by federal regula-

tion. In the last few decades, the province has experienced growth in

mineral and wood industries.

In 2004, a major eruption occurred in federal-provincial relations,

when the premier, Danny Williams, in anger, had the Canada flag

lowered from the provincial government building. The issue was the

nonagreement on off-shore oil revenues. This hard-driving and em-

barrassing act backfired. An agreement was announced in late Janu-

ary 2005 for an eight-year period, subject to review. The agreement

also involved Nova Scotia, an otherwise polite and quiet partner to

the process.

The capital of Newfoundland and Labrador is St. John’s. The

provincial assembly has 52 members. Federally, the province is

represented by seven members of Parliament and six senators. The

population of the province of Newfoundland and Labrador as of

2009 was 510,271, about 94 percent of which resided on the island

of Newfoundland.

NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR. See LABRADOR; NEW-

FOUNDLAND.

NEW FRANCE. Although technically referring to all French territo-

ries in America, New France more specifically applied to Canada, in-

cluding Acadia, Québec, and the western interior. In 1534, Jacques

Cartier, at Gaspé, formally claimed Canada for France. Québec

was founded in 1608 by Samuel de Champlain. In 1663, New

France became a royal province, succeeding variously held corporate

10_506_Gough.indb 28710_506_Gough.indb 287 9/28/10 5:36 AM9/28/10 5:36 AM

288 • NEW FRANCE

monopolies. Regulated by a sovereign council headed by a governor,

an intendant (chief administrator), and a bishop, New France had a

centralized, oligarchic government. Under metropolitan regulation

and local direction, the latter mainly owing to the enterprises of Jean

Talon, economic diversification and self-sufficiency were promoted

in fishing, farming, foresting, shipbuilding, and the production of tar

and potash. New France was succeeded by the British colony known

as Québec in 1763 through the Treaty of Paris.

Champlain, the Jesuits, and the French Court wanted more than

just good relations with the Indians. And they sought to make

Canada more than merely an outpost for the fur trade. They wanted

to colonize the St. Lawrence River valley and make it a jewel in the

French crown. They asked how this could be done when monopolists

in the trade failed to keep their obligations of sending out settlers in

order to protect the Indian trade.

In 1627, Cardinal Richelieu, the chief minister to Louis XIII and

dedicated to rivaling Spanish, Dutch, and English power by build-

ing up a strong marine and colonial system, established a company

of 100 shareholders known as the Compagnie des Cent-Associés

(Company of a Hundred Associates). The company possessed the fur

trade monopoly for 15 years. In return, it was required to establish

over 4,000 settlers in Acadia and Canada over the same period, was

held responsible for the costs of administration, and was compelled

to support the clergy. The fact that the majority of associates were

wealthy nobles indicates Richelieu’s desire to keep the scheme out

of the hands of merchants who hitherto had been interested in the fur

trade to the neglect of settlement. The nobles could be expected to

take a keen interest in landholding, and the prospects for expansion

of the Canadian population looked bright.

Richelieu’s design faced great problems, however. In May 1628,

four ships with 400 settlers left for Québec. Off Gaspé, they were

captured by a British expedition led by David Kirke, commissioned

by King Charles I to seize Canada and set up trade and plantations

in the St. Lawrence region for a group of London merchants. Kirke

then aided a Scottish project under William Alexander to settle

Port Royal and cut off supply ships from France. In July 1629, they

finally forced Champlain to surrender a Québec that was on the

point of starvation. Had the English captured Québec a year earlier,

10_506_Gough.indb 28810_506_Gough.indb 288 9/28/10 5:36 AM9/28/10 5:36 AM

NEW FRANCE • 289

it seems possible that they might have kept Canada at peace in April

1629. King Charles found Canada a useful bargaining point to get the

remainder of a dowry owed him, and on the strength of Richelieu’s

diplomacy, France regained Québec and Port Royal by the Treaty

of St. Germain-en-Laye in 1632, to the disappointment of English

and Scottish commercial and colonizing interests. Kirke later became

governor of Newfoundland, where George Calvert had founded

a fledgling settlement at Avalon. Alexander never lived to see his

Nova Scotia (New Scotland) become a reality. As for Champlain, he

resumed command at Québec in 1633, rebuilt the fortress, and died

there in 1635.

To stimulate emigration from France, the Company of New

France, beginning in 1627, granted property en seigneurie et fief to

landholders (seigneurs) who to their own advantage would settle it

with colonists (censitaires or habitants). The aim was regulated land

control for the purpose of stimulating colonization. The seigneuries,

long and narrow land grants, extended in parallel lines back from the

river. This geometric pattern would be repeated within a seigneurie

itself, with strips of land running parallel to the boundaries and di-

vided into concession rows (rangs), with unceded lands in the hinter-

land. This allowed habitants a variety of soil conditions and access

to the river for purposes of water supply, fishing, and transportation.

The seigneuries varied in size but the state preferred smaller divisions

because they prevented subdivisions and discouraged the building

of great landed estates. The grants were not confined to laity. After

1663, the Ursulines, Suplicans, Recollets, the Bishop and Seminary

of Québec, and especially the Jesuits were awarded lands which, by

1780, totaled 26 percent of all seigneurial lands. This percentage may

seem high, but it was probably justifiable in view of the social ser-

vices in education and hospitalization provided by the church. At the

time of the British conquest in 1760, there were some 250 seigneuries

containing nearly 8 million acres.

The seigneurial system appears to have been hierarchical in nature

and to have reflected the theoretical absolutism and paternalism of

French colonial policy. It was not feudal: the seigneur was the king’s

land agent and not a liege lord. He had duties to perform within the

law. He was bound to pay fealty and homage to the governor and to

subject himself to the crown’s inquiries. He could not sell his lands

10_506_Gough.indb 28910_506_Gough.indb 289 9/28/10 5:36 AM9/28/10 5:36 AM