Deal W.E. Handbook To Life In Medieval And Early Modern Japan
Подождите немного. Документ загружается.
JOKYUKI (AN ACCOUNT OF THE JOKYU
DISTURBANCE, EARLY 14TH CENTURY)
The Jokyuki recounts the events and armed conflict
that resulted from Emperor Go-Toba’s failed
attempt to overthrow the Hojo regents and restore
full ruling power to the imperial office.
S
OGA MONOGATARI (TALE OF
THE
SOGA BROTHERS, 14TH CENTURY)
The Soga monogatari details the story of the Soga
brothers who, in 1193, avenged their father’s murder
by killing the lord whose retainers had carried out
the act.
T
AIHEIKI (CHRONICLE OF THE GREAT PEACE,
CA. LATE 14TH CENTURY)
The Taiheiki recounts the years 1318–67, which
included Emperor Go-Daigo’s short-lived attempt to
overthrow military rule and reassert imperial rule,
and the resulting years of struggle between the
Northern and Southern courts.
G
IKEIKI
(YOSHITSUNE CHRONICLE, 15TH CENTURY)
The Gikeiki details the life of Minamoto no Yoshit-
sune, a hero of the Gempei War, and later a tragic fig-
ure when he was forced to commit suicide as a result
of the treachery of his brother (Minamoto no Yorit-
omo, the first Kamakura shogun). Some of the stories
about Yoshitsune told in this war tale became the
source for subsequent treatments of Yoshitsune’s life
in theatrical and other literary forms.
Early Modern Literature
In the transition from aristocratic rule to warrior
governance that marked the beginning of the
medieval period, literature came to express at least
some of the interests and sensibilities of the newly
emerging warrior class. In similar fashion, the transi-
tion from the medieval to the early modern was
accompanied by the gradual emergence of urban
centers that were home to newly important social
classes, such as merchants and other commoners.
The social context of urban culture—in particular,
the cities of Edo, Osaka, and Kyoto—was central to
the development of early modern literary sensibilities
and tastes. Warrior literature was not replaced, but
early modern literature is notable for its articulation
of the interests and concerns of merchants, artisans,
and other nonelite members of early modern society.
Just as Buddhism permeated aspects of medieval
literature, in the early modern period, the Tokugawa
shogunate’s promotion of Neo-Confucianism influ-
enced early modern literature. In general Neo-Con-
fucianism was hostile to fiction, drama, the newly
emerging haikai poetry, and other literary forms it
believed played no useful role in building the Neo-
Confucian state or in promulgating Neo-Confucian
values. Interestingly, though, traditional waka and
Chinese poetry (kanshi) were acceptable because
they were literary forms that expressed true human
emotion in distinction to literature that trafficked in
made-up stories that often exposed human frailties
or were merely frivolous. Not surprisingly, espe-
cially given the tensions already inherent in the rigid
social hierarchy that the shogunate promoted, early
modern literature frequently challenged the govern-
ment’s assertions or otherwise raised questions about
values, class, and economic status.
One technological change that occurred at the
start of the Edo period significantly transformed
access to literature and the process of its dissemina-
tion to increasingly larger numbers of people. Prior
to the early modern period, texts—whether religious
or literary—were only reproduced through the hand
copying of manuscripts. Besides the inevitable errors
and infelicities that such a process introduced into
copied texts, this low-tech mode of duplication pro-
duced relatively few texts, which were distributed on
a very limited basis, usually only to aristocrats, high-
ranking warriors, and clergy.
The commencement of commercial woodblock
printing in 1609 began the process of shifting access
to literature and texts from elitist-only circles to
those that included literate commoners. The growth
of so-called popular literature, that is, literature with
an audience beyond the upper classes, had been a
relatively minor aspect of medieval literature. This
changed dramatically in the early modern period.
Mass-published books accessible in bookstores at
affordable prices in turn fueled the demand for more
new books of fiction and poetry. Literature had
become a commodity.
H ANDBOOK TO L IFE IN M EDIEVAL AND E ARLY M ODERN J APAN
254
EARLY MODERN POETRY
Haikai/Hokku/Haiku Toward the end of the
medieval period, a new poetic form developed from
the renga tradition. This form, haikai (or haikai no
renga), became the central poetic style of the early
modern period. Haikai began in the late medieval
period as a comic diversion from the composition of
serious renga. To distinguish this poetic form, it was
called haikai no renga (often shortened to haikai).
Haikai followed the usual renga form of repeating
sets of stanzas of five, seven, and five syllables fol-
lowed by two seven-syllable lines, but without the
traditional restrictions on themes, word choice, and
seriousness of tone. Relaxation enjoyed through
transgressing the usual canons of renga taste, how-
ever, soon yielded to the formalization of this poetic
activity. As a result, schools devoted to this literary
art and promoting different haikai composition
styles developed at the beginning of the early mod-
ern period. The two most important schools were
the Teimon and Danrin.
The Teimon school was named after Matsunaga
Teitoku (1571–1653), a waka and renga poet who was
an advocate of traditional styles of poetry composi-
tion. Teitoku’s achievement was to turn a light-
hearted poetic form into serious poetry by applying
formal rules to its composition and promoting an
attention to aesthetics that would raise haikai to the
level of waka and renga in its relevance as a style of
poetry. For Teitoku, what distinguished haikai from
renga was not so much humor as the use of a
haigon—a colloquial Japanese word or a Chinese
word. Such words were not permitted in serious
waka and renga. The judicious use of such words
brought structure to haikai, providing formal rules
that serious haikai poets of the Teimon school were
required to master.
The Danrin school, headed by Nishiyama Soin
(1605–82), was, in part, a reaction against the Tei-
mon school’s formalistic approach to haikai compo-
sition. Soin was a renga and haikai poet who, along
with Ihara Saikaku (1642–93, also a noted fiction
writer—see below: “Ukiyozoshi”), advocated a move
away from formal rules, applied in a painstaking
manner, to an informal style in which poems were
composed rapidly using colloquial Japanese. Unlike
the Teimon school, the Danrin school was not con-
cerned with the enduring quality of its poetry, but
rather the immediate witty humor that it produced.
The Danrin poetic style of humorous, rapid compo-
sition is exemplified by Saikaku’s prodigious ability
to produce large numbers of amusing, linked verses
in a short time. In 1684, Saikaku reportedly man-
aged to compose 23,500 verses in a single day. One
example of Saikaku’s haikai is the collection known
as Haikai okukazu (A great number of haikai stanzas,
1677), a 4,000-verse linked sequence.
Originally, the goal of haikai was to produce a
humorous link in the renga sequence. Over time,
however, the emphasis shifted from sequential links
to the first verse of the sequence (called hokku). The
hokku came to be treated more and more as a verse
that was independently meaningful, even without
the addition of subsequent stanzas. Thus, hokku
became a 17-syllable verse structured into three
lines of five, seven, and five syllables and was
regarded not as a link to another stanza, but as a sep-
arate, independent poem. Hokku is better known as
haiku, but this later term was not used until the Meiji
period. The neologism haiku was derived from the
“hai” of haikai and the “ku” of hokku. The creation
of the term haiku marked the full independence of
hokku from its origins in renga.
The acknowledged master of the hokku form was
the haikai poet, Matsuo Basho (1644–94), a samurai
turned poet and traveler. Despite the brevity of a
hokku—a mere 17 syllables—Basho was able to com-
pose poems that contain very simple images of
seemingly mundane scenes, but that carry with them
a great deal of power to suggest larger truths or to
evoke a surprisingly wide range of human emotion.
For Basho, as for other Japanese poets, poetry was
not simply a literary pursuit; it also had deeply spiri-
tual implications. Basho was a student of Zen Bud-
dhism, and Zen sensibilities inform at least some of
his poetry.
Besides his hokku, Basho is highly regarded for
his travel writing that intersperses poetry and prose.
His most famous travel writing, Oku no Hosomichi
(The narrow road to the deep north; published
posthumously in 1702), recounts a journey he took
in 1689 with a companion. This text exemplifies
Basho’s prodigious abilities at composing 17-syllable
verse with accompanying prose (called haibun) that
sets the context for his poems. Basho’s hokku evoke
L ANGUAGE AND L ITERATURE
255
his moods and feelings as he travels the countryside
visiting famous historical sites and viewing scenes of
nature along the way.
Following Basho, other poets continued to write
fine poetry in the hokku style and to create their own
distinctive poetic voices. Many of these poets also
wrote haikai, but are best known for their 17-syllable
compositions. Notable among Basho’s successors
were Yosa Buson (1716–84) and Kobayashi Issa
(1763–1827). Buson was a poet and painter whose
verses were particularly descriptive of worldly scenes
without any overt suggestion of the spirituality
found in Basho’s poems. He championed the slogan,
“Back to Basho,” presumably referring to poetry
composition that is mindful of a Basho-like quality.
Issa was a poet who advanced the narrative voice
that Buson had introduced into his poems. Issa’s
poetic narratives are chiefly concerned with com-
moners, expressing concern for the plight of the
downtrodden and poor. His poems also sometimes
express great affection for animals.
EARLY MODERN PROSE
Kanazoshi Kanazoshi, “kana books,” is a term for
popular literary works published in the early Edo
period. Written mostly in kana (usually hiragana)
and containing few Chinese characters, they had no
scholarly pretensions, because all learned texts were
written either in Chinese or in a mixed Chinese and
Japanese style. Writings in this genre covered a wide
variety of subjects, both fiction and nonfiction. Of
the approximately 200 kanazoshi published, none are
considered among the Edo period’s finest literature.
Nevertheless, the subjects written about illustrate
popular interests and concerns in the first decades of
the early modern period, such as Buddhist sermons
and Neo-Confucian ethical instruction, practical
guides to travel and the pleasure quarters, fictional
stories about love and the lives of merchants, and
critical evaluations of the skills and abilities of actors
and geisha. Authors of these books included middle-
ranking warriors, aristocrats, monks, Neo-Confu-
cian scholars, and others either needing the income
or wanting to get out their particular message to the
population at large.
One author, Asai Ryoi (unknown–1691), a for-
mer head of a Pure Land Buddhist temple, is
regarded as the best writer in this genre. He was also
the most prolific and his literary output suggests the
breadth of subjects taken up by kanazoshi authors.
Among his works are travel guides, ghost stories, fic-
tion, and sermons. He was able to earn a living as a
writer and is usually described as Japan’s first profes-
sional writer. His most famous work is the Ukiyo
monogatari (Tales of the floating world; ca. 1661).
Although this text is not usually categorized as a
“book of the floating world,” a genre developed
soon after Ukiyo monogatari was published, it deals
with the same themes: how to live life in a world that
is inherently unstable and changing.
Ukiyozoshi Ukiyozoshi, “books of the floating
world,” is a term for popular literary works published
in Osaka and Kyoto from the late 17th century to the
late 18th century. The concept of the “floating
world” (ukiyo) is central to this genre. Prior to the
early modern period, “floating world” was a Buddhist
metaphor referring to the impermanence of all
things in the world and the transitory nature of
human existence. In the Edo period, the idea of the
floating world kept its Buddhist meaning, but instead
of something to be escaped through meditation or
ascetic practice, the floating world was to be enjoyed
here and now because life was transitory and short.
By extension, the pleasure quarters, the theater, and
other hedonistic attractions of urban life were where
the fleeting pleasures of this world could be most
fully enjoyed. As a literary genre, ukiyozoshi explored
the nature of life in the floating world, focusing on
such topics as eroticism, amorous affairs, the pleasure
quarters, and the lives of merchants and warriors.
A book published in 1682, Koshoku ichidai otoko
(Life of an Amorous Man, 1682), by Ihara Saikaku, is
usually cited as the inaugural work in this genre.
Saikaku’s poetic compositions have already been dis-
cussed (see above: “Haikai/Hokku/Haiku”), but he is
best known for his fiction, and he is considered one
of the finest Edo-period authors. Saikaku, himself
born into an Osaka merchant family, was particu-
larly astute in his observations of urban life. His
prose explores the nature of human existence in the
floating world, including erotic love (both hetero-
sexual and homosexual), money and status, the mer-
chant work ethic, warriors, and disparities between
social classes that arise from a hierarchical society.
H ANDBOOK TO L IFE IN M EDIEVAL AND E ARLY M ODERN J APAN
256
The following brief discussion of four of Sai-
kaku’s most important works highlights some of
these themes.
Koshoku ichidai otoko (The Life of an Amorous Man;
1682) The Life of an Amorous Man was Saikaku’s first
novel. It details the amorous adventures of the pro-
tagonist Yonosuke, whose first sexual encounter
takes place at the age of eight. At the age of 61, hav-
ing finally exhausted the sexual amusements to be
had in Japan, he sails away in search of an island
inhabited only by women in hopes of discovering
new sources of pleasure. This book is significant in
part because it made erotic love (koshoku) the pri-
mary subject of a literary work for the first time.
Prior to Saikaku, treatment of love in Japanese liter-
ature had focused mostly on the ideal of courtly love
first articulated in Heian period works like Genji
monogatari (Tale of Genji) that emphasized human
emotion and aesthetics, not the erotic.
Koshoku gonin onna (Five Women Who Loved Love;
1686) Five Women Who Loved Love was also a
groundbreaking work because it dealt with the love
lives of merchant-class women. Prior to this novel,
only the sexual activities of pleasure-quarter prosti-
tutes had been addressed, never that of “respectable”
women. The book tells the story of five women with
an uncontrollable fondness for lovemaking. As a
result, four of the five women come to shameful and
tragic ends as a result of illicit affairs or adulterous
relationships. Saikaku based these stories on real
incidents. In addition, Saikaku explores an ethical
dilemma when he takes up a theme also found in
other Edo-period literature and drama—the conflict
between a social sense of duty (giri) constantly rein-
forced by the government’s promotion of Neo-Con-
fucian values and the personal desires and needs that
arise from one’s own feelings (ninjo), which often are
contradictory to duty.
Koshoku ichidai onna (The Life of an Amorous
Woman; 1686) Like Five Women Who Loved Love, The
Life of an Amorous Woman deals with uncontrollable
erotic urges that lead to decadence and unhappiness.
Saikaku has the protagonist tell her dark and sad
story in the first person. She is descended from a
family of Kyoto aristocrats, but has to rely on her
own resources to survive. She works at many differ-
ent jobs, including those of pleasure-quarter courte-
san and common prostitute. Her downward spiral is
the result, she reveals, of her love of erotic love
acquired at a young age. Saikaku has once again
moved his readers a long distance from the gentler
side of romance expressed in the courtly ideal of love.
Nihon eitaigura (The Eternal Storehouse of Japan;
1688) The Eternal Storehouse of Japan deals with
both the fortunes and misfortunes of merchant life
and the struggle to make a living. This book is a col-
lection of tales that recount the successes and fail-
ures of different merchants. Rather than deal with
the success stories of wealthy merchants, Saikaku
turns his attention to middle- and lower-class mer-
chants who have to endure the vagaries of the mar-
kets and the unfair advantages to which they are
subjected by the Edo-period economic system.
Gesaku Gesaku (playful composition) is a term used
to collectively describe the different kinds of early
modern prose fiction after Saikaku, that is, from the
middle to the end of the Edo period. While the
notion of “playful composition” refers in part to
the idea that this literature was enjoyable to read, it
also suggests something of the attitude of its au-
thors, which was often irreverent toward the prevail-
ing social mores.
As a literary form, gesaku not only drew inspira-
tion from past narrative fiction, but also from some
of the Edo period’s allied arts. For instance, some
types of gesaku used woodblock prints, sometimes in
color, as book illustrations. In some gesaku forms the
illustration was meant to supplement the text. In
others, the illustration was primary and the textual
narrative secondary. It was also common for plots
and themes from popular theater, such as Kabuki
and Bunraku, to find their way into gesaku narra-
tives. Characters in book illustrations might even be
rendered to resemble famous stage actors.
The plots and stories of some gesaku, and, for
that matter, other popular art forms, were some-
times found to be morally offensive by the shogu-
nate’s censors. On at least two occasions, the
government attempted to ban certain kinds of gesaku
literature. During the Kansei Reforms (1787–93)
and the Tempo Reforms (1841–43), some authors
L ANGUAGE AND L ITERATURE
257
were effectively silenced, and the chilling effect this
had on other writers lasted beyond the years of these
reforms. Nevertheless, gesaku remained a vibrant
source of literary creativity through the end of the
Edo period, and the government was never fully suc-
cessful in banning the books it found injurious to
public morality.
A large number of books and several different cat-
egories of gesaku were published in the last half of the
Edo period. Sometimes the names for these gesaku
categories describe something of the subject matter of
books, while at other times the category names refer
to the physical appearance of books. Some categories
have been used in multiple ways and some authors
wrote books that fall under more than one category.
Not even a specialized study of Edo-period prose lit-
erature could do full justice to the variety and com-
plexity of gesaku works. However, the following
discussion introduces some of the more important
gesaku categories and briefly considers some of the
genre’s most influential and important authors.
Included among the important categories of
gesaku were:
• sharebon (witty books)
• kibyoshi (yellow-covered books)
• kokkeibon (humorous books)
• gokan (bound-together volumes)
• yomihon (reading books)
• ninjobon (books about human feelings)
SHAREBON
Sharebon (witty books) were fictional stories, usually
depicting the world of the pleasure quarters, written
in a colloquial style considered clever or witty. This
narrative form was especially popular in the 1770s
and 1780s. The typical sharebon tells the story of a
man who has a refined knowledge of the ways of the
pleasure quarters, fashions, and all the latest cultural
crazes.
Important sharebon authors:
• Ota Nampo (1749–1823)
• Santo Kyoden (1761–1816)
KIBYOSHI
Kibyoshi, or “yellow-covered books,” were named for
their bright yellow book jackets. They were short
satirical stories written in colloquial Japanese, and
published in illustrated books starting in the 1770s and
continuing through the early 19th century. Wood-
block-print illustrations were central to this literary
form. The text of the story was printed directly onto
the blank spaces in the illustration. The book illustra-
tors were sometimes well-known woodblock artists,
such as Utagawa Toyokuni and Torii Kiyonaga. Sub-
ject matter for these stories included the licensed plea-
sure quarters and other aspects of contemporary
society. Regardless of the subject matter, these stories
were typically racy and provocative making them the
object of Neo-Confucian government censors.
Important kibyoshi authors:
• Hoseido Kisanji (1735–1813)
• Santo Kyoden (1761–1816)
KOKKEIBON
Kokkeibon, or “humorous books,” were comic com-
positions written starting in the middle of the 18th
century and continuing until the end of the Edo
period. Usually a fictional narrative, kokkeibon some-
times also told humorous stories about real people
and events. Readers were attracted to kokkeibon not
only because they were funny, but also because of
their often penetrating, satirical view of society.
Kokkeibon also featured dialogue spoken in colloquial
Japanese.
Important kokkeibon authors:
• Hiraga Gennai (1728–80)
• Jippensha Ikku (1765–1831)
• Shikitei Samba (1776–1822)
GOKAN
Gokan, or “bound-together volumes,” were illus-
trated prose fiction. Gokan illustrations, however,
were typically more complex than the kinds of illus-
trations found in earlier gesaku forms. Originating at
the beginning of the 19th century, gokan were vol-
umes that took a number of smaller books and bound
them together to create a larger book. One of the
important effects of this change in printing and bind-
ing style was that it created a market for longer nov-
els with more detailed plots. Romances, historical
novels, and warrior adventures were among the kinds
of stories that were told in this longer format. Gokan
was one of the gesaku forms to be especially influ-
enced by Kabuki plots, which frequently were
H ANDBOOK TO L IFE IN M EDIEVAL AND E ARLY M ODERN J APAN
258
reprised in book form. Of all the gesaku literary
forms, gokan were published in the greatest numbers.
Important gokan authors:
• Santo Kyoden (1761–1816)
• Ryutei Tanehiko (1783–1842)
YOMIHON
Yomihon, or “reading books,” derived its name from
the desire to set these books apart from those that
relied on illustrations to tell their stories. Although
yomihon were illustrated, the text was always pri-
mary. Yomihon were prose fiction stories that had an
overtly moral or didactic tone. Depending on the
author, the moral of the story might be Buddhist or
it might be Neo-Confucian. Yomihon plots were
often placed within the context of historical events
and sometimes were replete with supernatural oc-
currences. Influences on this literary form included
Japanese ukiyozoshi (see above) and Chinese collo-
quial fiction.
Important yomihon authors:
• Ueda Akinari (1734–1809)
• Santo Kyoden (1761–1816)
• Kyokutei (or Takizawa) Bakin (1767–1848)
NINJOBON
Ninjobon, or “books about human feelings,” were
late Edo-period love stories usually set in the plea-
sure quarters of the city of Edo. These books
first appeared at the end of the 18th century. As
a genre, ninjobon were related to sharebon. Like
sharebon, ninjobon utilized dialogue to portray the
world of the pleasure quarters. Unlike sharebon, nin-
jobon were sympathetic to the travails of their char-
acters, despite the social class or occupation of their
protagonists.
Important ninjobon authors:
• Tamenaga Shunsui (1790–1843)
• Hana Sanjin (1790–1858)
I
MPORTANT
G
ESAKU
A
UTHORS
AND
THEIR MAJOR WORKS
Hiraga Gennai (1728–80)
• Nenashigusa (Rootless grass, in two volumes, 1763
and 1768)
• Furyu shidoken den (Biography of the stylish Shi-
doken, 1763)
• Naemara in’itsu den (The tale of a limp prick in
seclusion, 1768)
• Hohirin (On flatulence, in two volumes, 1774 and
1777)
Ueda Akinari (1734–1809)
• Ugetsu monogatari (Tales of moonlight and rain,
1776)
• Harusame monogatari (Tales of the spring rain, ca.
1809)
Hoseido Kisanji (1735–1813)
• Miru ga toku issui no yume (Seeing is believing:
dreams for sale, 1781)
• Sato namari (Yoshiwara dialect, 1783)
• Nagaiki mitaiki (A search for long life, 1783)
• Koto shamisen (Koto and shamisen, 1783)
• Bumbu nido bangoku toshi (Separating the sword
from the brush, 1788)
Ota Nampo (1749–1823)
Note: Ota Nampo also wrote under the name
Shokusanjin.
• Ichiwa ichigen (One story, one word, 1775–1822)
• Senko banshi (Thousand reds and ten thousand
purples, 1817)
• Hokushu sennen no kotobuki (Northern district, one
thousand years of good luck, 1818)
• Ukiyo-e ruiko (Lives of the ukiyo-e artists, ca.
1790)
• Hannichi kanwa (A half-day of leisurely talk, date
unknown)
• Zokuji kosui (Urging secular ears, 1788)
Santo Kyoden (1761–1816)
• Edo umare uwaki no kabayaki (Grilled and basted
Edo-born playboy, 1785)
• Kokei no sansho (Three madames and their dirty
tale, 1787)
• Tsugen somagaki (Stars of the brothel, 1787)
• Keiseikei (Prying on courtesans, 1788)
• Keiseikai shijuhatte (48 techniques for success with
courtesans, 1790)
• Nishiki no ura (The other side of the brocade,
1791)
L ANGUAGE AND L ITERATURE
259
Jippensha Ikku (1765–1831)
• Seiro yawa irogoshaku (Romantic lectures for
Yoshiwara nights, 1801)
• Tokaidochu hizakurige (Travels on the eastern
seaboard, 1802–22)
Kyokutei (or Takizawa) Bakin (1767–1848)
• Sumidagawa bairyu shinsho (The plum and the wil-
low by the Sumida River, 1807)
• Sanshichi zenden nanka no yume (The complete
story of Osan and Hanshichi, 1808)
• Chinsetsu yumiharizuki (The crescent moon,
1811)
• Beibei kyodan (Talk in rural dialect, 1813)
• Kinseisetsu bishonenroku (Golden youths in recent
times, 1828)
• Nanso satomi hakkenden (Satomi and the eight
dogs, 1814–32)
Shikitei Samba (1776–1822)
• Ukiyoburo (Bathhouse of the floating world,
1809–13)
• Ukiyodoko (Barber shop of the floating world,
1813–14)
Ryutei Tanehiko (1783–1842)
• Shohon jitate (Kabuki stories, 1815–31)
• Nise murasaki inaka genji (The false Murasaki and
the rustic Genji, 1829)
• Yama arashi (Mountain storm, 1808)
Tamenaga Shunsui (1790–1843)
• Shunshoku umegoyomi (Spring colors: the plum
calendar, 1832–33)
• Shunshoku tatsumi no sono (The Tatsumi quarter,
1833–35)
• Harutsugedori (Bush warbler, 1837)
Hana Sanjin (1790–1858)
Note: Hana Sanjin also wrote under the name Tori
Sanjin.
• Sato kagami (Yoshiwara Patterns, 1822)
• Kuruwa zodan (Idle talk in the pleasure quarters,
1826)
READING
Language
Clarke 1999: development of Edo-period language;
Habein 1984: history of the written Japanese lan-
guage; Hadamitzky and Spahn 2003: kanji and kana;
Miller 1967: history of the Japanese language;
Quackenbush 1999: Edo dialects; Seeley 2000: his-
tory of the written Japanese language; Shibatani
1990: languages of Japan
Literature
HISTORY
Keene 1974, 375–388: general characteristics of
Japanese literature, 401–405: medieval literature,
406–414: Edo literature; LaFleur 1983: Buddhism
and medieval literature; Putzar 1973, 69–169: his-
tory of medieval and early modern literature; Kato
1981, 209–313: history of medieval literature; Kato
1990: history of early modern literature; Brower and
Miner 1961: history of aristocratic poetry; Hibbett
1959: history of popular Edo-period literature;
Hisamatsu 1976: biographical dictionary of authors;
Keene 1989: travel diaries; Keene 1993, 609–1175:
history of medieval literature; Keene 1976: history
of early modern literature; Konishi 1986: history of
early medieval literature; Konishi 1991: history of
late medieval literature; Kornicki 1998: history of the
book; Miner 1979: renga; Miner, Odagiri, and Mor-
rell 1985, 43–63: history of medieval literature,
63–111: history of early modern literature
ANTHOLOGIES
Bownas and Thwaite (eds.) 1964: translations of
selected medieval and early modern poetry; Carter
(ed.) 1991: translations of selected medieval and
early modern poetry; Sato and Watson (eds.) 1981:
H ANDBOOK TO L IFE IN M EDIEVAL AND E ARLY M ODERN J APAN
260
translations of selected medieval and early modern
poetry; Keene (ed.) 1955: translations of selected
medieval and early modern prose; McCullough (ed.)
1990: translations of selected medieval and early
modern prose; Miner (ed.) 1969: translations of
selected medieval and early modern poetic diaries;
Shirane (ed.) 2004: translations of selected early
modern prose
L ANGUAGE AND L ITERATURE
261
PERFORMING ARTS
9