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arginine, aspartic acid, and tryptophan, than cereal

proteins. Due to the high lysine content, buckwheat

proteins have a higher biological value (BV) than the

cereal proteins such as those of wheat, barley, rye, and

corn. The digestibility of buckwheat protein, how-

ever, is rather low, and this is probably due to the

high fiber content (17.8%) in buckwheat, which may

be desirable in some parts of the world. Buckwheat

fiber is free of phytic acid and is partially soluble. (See

Dietary Fiber: Properties and Sources.)

Lipids

0018 Whole buckwheat seeds contain 1.5–3.7% total

lipids. The highest concentration is in the embryo

and the lowest in the hull, each containing 7–14%

and 0.4–0.9%, respectively. Groats or dehulled seeds

of Mancan, Tokyo, and Manor buckwheat contain

2.1–2.6% total lipids (Table 1), of which 81–85%

are neutral lipids, 8–11% phospholipids, and 3–5%

glycolipids. The major fatty acids of buckwheat

lipids are palmitic (16:0), oleic (18:1), linoleic (18:2),

stearic (18:0), linolenic (18:3), arachidic (20:0), behe-

nic (22:0), and lignoceric (24:0). Of these, the 16 and

18 carbon acids are commonly found in all cereals.

The long chain acids, arachidic, behenic, and ligno-

ceric, which represent, on average, 8% of the total

acids in buckwheat, are only minor components or

are not present in cereals. (See Phospholipids: Proper-

ties and Occurrence.)

Phenolic Compounds

0019 The content of phenolics in hulls and groats of

common buckwheat is 0.73 and 0.79%, and that of

tartary buckwheat is 1.87 and 1.52%, respectively.

Common buckwheat grown in Canada contains

1.2–1.6% of total phenolics with 70–79% of the

phenolic acids being etherified. The total flavonoid

concentration in common buckwheat seed and hulls

varies with cultivar and location, and ranges from 19

to 387 and from 74 to 1314 mg per 100 g, respect-

ively. Six flavonoids, rutin, orientin, vitexin, querce-

tin, isovitexin, and isoorientin, have been isolated

and identified in buckwheat. Rutin and isovitexin

are the only flavonoid components of buckwheat

seed, while the hulls contain all six compounds.

Rutin (quercetin 3-rutinoside), a well-known flavo-

nol diglucoside used as a drug for treatment of

vascular disorders caused by abnormally fragile

or permeable capillaries, occurs in leaves, stems,

flowers, and fruit of buckwheat. On average, about

300, 1000, and 46 000 p.p.m. of rutin are found in

leaves, stems, and flowers, respectively, of common

buckwheats. Other reported flavonols are quercitin

(quercetin 3-rhamnoside) and hyperin (quercetin 3-

galactoside). At least three red pigments have been

found in hypocotyls of buckwheat seedlings. One of

these is cyanidin; the other two are presumed to be

glycosides of cyanidin. The phenolic acids of buck-

wheat seed are the hydroxybenzoic acids, syringic,

p-hydroxylbenzoic, vanillic, and p-coumaric acids.

Also in seed are soluble oligomeric condensed

tannins, which, along with the phenolic acids,

provide astringency and affect the color and nutri-

tive value of buckwheat products. (See Phenolic

Compounds.)

Biological Effects

0020Common buckwheat and its components are

regarded as functional foods in Japan because of its

rutin content. Rutin is known to increase the elasticity

of blood vessels and therefore prevent hardening of

the arteries. According to Chinese medicine, the leaf

and stem of tartary buckwheat have a therapeutic

function in treating ulcer, hemostasis, and hyperten-

sion, may improve vision and hearing, and acts as an

adaptogen. In Nepal, consumption of tartary buck-

wheat is reported to aid in stomach disorders. Con-

sumption of buckwheat has been associated with

prevention and treatment of hypercholesterolemia.

This effect of common buckwheat is due to its pro-

tein, which has a stronger hypocholesterolemic activ-

ity than that of soy protein isolate and behaves similar

to dietary fiber. Intake of buckwheat protein extract

retards mammary carcinogenesis in rats by lowering

serum estradiol and reduces body fat because of its

low digestibility. Bioactive peptides from buckwheat

pollen have an immunostimulatory effect on lympho-

cytes and may therefore act as an immunomodulator

in increasing immunity and curing cancer.

0021Buckwheat flour has been proposed to have

physiological activity in the treatment of hyper-

lipemia, hyperglycemia, diabetes, and cardiovascular

disease. A decrease in blood sugar level has been

observed clinically in 75 diabetic patients treated

with tartary buckwheat biscuits. Buckwheat bran is

known to contain fagopyritols, a group of phyto-

chemicals acting as an insulin mediator, that may

have an important pharmacological use in the treat-

ment of noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus

(NIDDM). Rutin from buckwheat prevents the oxi-

dation of ascorbic acid and protects the endothelium

when given with vitamin C. Hence, the combination

of fagopyritols and rutin can have a significant effect

on the prevention of diabetes.

0022Buckwheat herb tea standardized to a total flavo-

noid content of 5% has been reported to prevent

edema in patients with chronic venous insufficiency

(CVI). This positive pharmacological effect is thought

to be due to the capillary action of rutin resulting in

BUCKWHEAT 695

venous microcirculation. Leaves and flowers of buck-

wheat have been dehydrated and packaged with other

essential oils for protection of the vascular system as a

result of the rutin content. Tartary buckwheat has

been reported to treat periodontitis and gum bleeding

because of the high contents of quercetin and rutin.

Green flour obtained by milling dried flowering buck-

wheat plants is already used in Japan as a natural

food colorant for pasta, ice cream, and other food

products as a source of dietary rutin.

Grading, Handling, and Storage

Grading

0023 In most countries, buckwheat grain is priced

according to its physical condition in terms of size,

soundness, and general appearance. In Canada, buck-

wheat is marketed according to grades established

under the Canada Grain Act. The grades are No. 1,

No. 2, and No. 3 Canada, and Sample. The grade

determinants are minimum test weight, degree of

soundness, and maximum limits of foreign material

(Table 2). Grades No. 1 and 2 Canada must be free

from objectionable odors; No. 3 Canada may have

a ground or grassy odor but should not be musty

or sour. Test weight, seed size and foreign material

are determined on a dockage-free sample. Seed size

is determined with a No. 8 slotted sieve (3.18 

19.05 mm) and is added to, and becomes part of, the

grade name, e.g., buckwheat, No. 1 Canada large.

Foreign material refers to cereal grains (wheat, rye,

barley, oats, and triticale), weed seeds, and other

grains that are not readily removable by mechanical

cleaners and may include peas, beans, corn, and other

domestic or wild weeds. Samples containing in excess

of 5% are graded buckwheat, sample Canada (size)

account admixture. Damaged seeds include frosted,

moldy, distinctly green, or otherwise unsound and

dehulled seeds.

0024 In the USA, buckwheat is not marketed under offi-

cial grades established by the USDA. However, some

states (e.g., Minnesota) have Official Grain Standards

that specify the use of Grades 1, 2, 3, and Sample. The

grade determinants are similar to those of the Can-

adian grading system. The Russian standards for food

buckwheat are: moisture 14.5, extraneous matter

3% (including 0.2% mineral admixture of which

0.1% may be stones), pernicious admixtures 0.2%,

spoiled grain 0.5%. The Japanese Buckwheat

Millers Association prefers buckwheat, which has

large and uniform seeds with black hulls and greenish

groats.

Handling

0025The method of handling varies among production

areas. In most cases, however, losses and quality

changes of the grain occur at various postharvest

stages. During harvest, shattering and losses due to

germination, animals such as birds and rodents, and

infection by molds occur in all countries. Threshing is

done with combines or by beating the dried plants

against stones or wooden bars, or by trampling the

plants under bullock feet, carts, or tractor wheels.

Transportation of grain from the field to market

results in losses and quality deterioration. Losses

during transportation are mainly due to spillage.

However, exposure of the grain to rain or frost during

transit leads to subsequent spoilage due to infection

by microorganisms. (See Cereals: Handling of Grain

for Storage.)

Storage

0026Like other grain crops, buckwheat is stored to ensure

an even supply through time, to preserve the surplus

grain for sale to deficit areas, and to be used as seed in

the next planting season. Storage of the seeds may

be at the farm, trader, market, government, retail, or

consumer levels. Storage containers range from sacks

to straw huts to bulk storage bins. In developing

countries, traditional storage structures include: gran-

aries of gunny, cotton, or jute bags, or structures

manufactured from reed, bamboo, or wood and plas-

tered with mud and cowdung. In North America,

storage structures include metal, concrete, or wooden

bins at the farm level, elevators and annex at

tbl0002 Table 2 Primary-grade determinants of buckwheat (Canada)

Grade Minimum seed

density (kg hl

1

)

Degree of soundness Maximumlimits of foreignmaterial (%)

Stones

Ergot Sclerotinia Cereal grains Total foreign

material

No. 1 58 Well matured, cool, and sweet 3.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 1.0

No. 2 55 Reasonably well matured, cool, and sweet 3.0 0.05 0.05 2.5 3.0

No. 3 No minimum May have a ground or grassy odor, but

should not be musty or sour

3.0 0.25 0.25 5.0 5.0

Number of kernel size stones in 500 g.

696 BUCKWHEAT

centralized receiving, storage and shipping points,

and concrete silos at grain terminals. Bagged buck-

wheat is highly susceptible to attack by insects

and rodents. Bulk storage in bins, elevators, and

silos is recommended. (See Cereals: Bulk Storage of

Grain.)

0027 A moisture content of 16% of less is required for

safe storage of buckwheat. If the seed requires drying,

the maximum temperature of the drying air should

not exceed 43



C(Table 3). This temperature limit

applies to seed for both seeding and processing.

During storage at ambient temperature and relative

humidity, the color of the aleurone layer changes

from a desirable light green to the undesirable reddish

brown. This undesirable quality change can be re-

duced by storing the seed at a lower temperature

and at a relative humidity below 45%. Seeds can

also be stored under controlled atmospheres (97%

, 1.5% O

, and 1.5% CO

). However, concentra-

tion of the major volatiles decreases, while the con-

tent of odor-active volatiles such as hexyl acetate and

1-hexanol increases in seeds stored under controlled

atmosphere for 60 weeks. (See Storage Stability: Par-

ameters Affecting Storage Stability.)

Primary Processing

0028 Primary processing of buckwheat includes cleaning,

dehulling, and milling. The aim of seed cleaning is

to remove other plant parts, soil, stones, weed seeds,

chaff, dust, seeds of other crops, metallic particles,

and small and immature buckwheat seeds. The extent

and sophistication of the cleaning equipment depend

largely on the size of the operation and the require-

ments for the finished product(s). Milling of buck-

wheat seed can be carried out virtually by any

equipment capable of milling cereal grains. Hammer

mills, stone mills, pin mills, disk mills, and roller mills

have been used to mill buckwheat. Of these, stone

mills and roller mills are probably the most exten-

sively used today.

0029The milling process may be of two types. In the first

and most common type, the whole seeds are first

dehulled and then milled. In the second type, the

seeds are milled and then screened to remove the

hulls. When dehulling and milling are separate oper-

ations, the seeds are segregated according to size and

may be steamed and dried prior to dehulling. Dehul-

ling is carried out by impact or abrasion against

emery stones or steel, followed by air or screen separ-

ation of groats and hulls. A widely used buckwheat

dehuller is built on the principle of the stone-milling

with emery stones set to crack the hull without break-

ing the groat. The effectiveness of this type of dehuller

depends on the clearance between the seed cracking

surfaces, and for any seed size, there is an optimum

setting. The ease of dehulling and percentage recovery

of undamaged groats depends on variety and mois-

ture content. From the dehuller, the groats are separ-

ated over sieves of different mesh for sizing into

whole groats and two or more sizes of broken groats.

Flour is produced by passing the groats through stone

and/or roller grinders. (See Flour: Roller Milling

Operations.)

0030When buckwheat seed is to be processed only into

flour, and production of groats is not a requirement,

tbl0003 Table 3 Amino acid composition of buckwheat protein and its fractions

Amino acid Whole buckwheat

Buckwheatgroats

Light flour

Salt-soluble proteins

Albumins

Lysine (Lys) 6.0 5.9 5.7 5.7 5.6

Histidine 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.4 1.6

Arginine 9.2 10.0 7.9 9.0 5.1

Aspartic acid 11.4 11.4 10.5 9.0 6.4

Serine 4.9 4.6 4.7 4.7 4.6

Glutamic acid 18.5 19.3 17.6 16.6 11.2

Proline 3.8 3.8 5.1 3.7 2.2

Half cystine 1.6 1.8 1.8 NB 0.7

Glycine 6.6 6.2 6.2 5.6 3.0

Alanine 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.4 2.3

Valine 5.3 4.9 5.4 4.4 2.3

Methionine (Met) 2.3 2.8 2.8 2.0 9.2

Isoleucine 4.0 3.7 4.2 3.5 2.1

Leucine 6.7 6.2 7.0 6.4 5.6

Tyrosine 2.0 2.1 2.9 2.8 5.7

Phenylalanine 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.4 2.0

Data from Marshall HG and Pomeranz Y (1982) Buckwheat: Description, breeding, production, and utilization. In: Pomeranz Y (ed.), Advances in Cereal

Science and Technology, vol. 5. St. Paul, MN: American Association of Cereal Chemists, with permission.

Data from Radovic RV, Maksimovic RV, Brkljacic MJ et al. (1999) 2S albumin from buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) seeds. Journal of

Agriculture and Food Science 47: 1467–1470, with permission.

BUCKWHEAT 697

the seeds are ground on break rolls or stone mills and

then screened to separate the coarse flour from the

hulls. The coarse flour is further reduced by a series of

size reduction rolls, each grinding operation followed

by sifting to fractionate the mixture of particles

according to size. The flour yield ranges from 50 to

75%, depending on the size, shape, and condition of

the seeds and efficiency of the dehulling and milling

operations.

End Products

0031 Buckwheat has multiple uses. It is used to make alco-

holic drinks, the liquor prepared from tartary buck-

wheat being ascribed medicinal qualities. In China, it

is used in the production of vinegar. Common buck-

wheat is also used as a source of nectar for honey

production in many countries. Buckwheat is useful

as a green manure crop for renovation of low-

productivity land. The plant has been used as a

smother crop as it germinates rapidly and produces

a dense canopy that controls broad-leaved weeds. It

also acts as a feed and cover crop for wildlife includ-

ing deer, wild turkeys, and other birds.

0032 Buckwheat flour is generally dark in color due to

the presence of hull fragments. In North America, it is

used primarily for making buckwheat pancakes, and

is commonly marketed in the form of prepared mixes.

These mixes generally contain buckwheat flour mixed

with wheat, corn, rice, oat or soybean flours, and a

leavening agent. Buckwheat is also used with vege-

tables and spices in kasha and soup mixes, and

with wheat, corn, or rice in ready-to-eat breakfast

products, porridge, bread, and pasta products.

0033 In Japan, buckwheat flour is used primarily for

making soba or sobakiri (buckwheat noodles) and

Teuchi Soba (hand-made buckwheat noodles). These

products are prepared at soba shops or at home from

a mixture of buckwheat and wheat flours. The wheat

flour is used because of its binding properties and

availability. Soba is made by hand or mechanically.

In both methods, buckwheat and wheat flours are

mixed with each other and then with water to form

a stiff dough that is kneaded and rolled into a thin

sheet (1.4 mm) with a rolling pin or passed between

sheeting rolls and cut into long strips. The product

may be cooked immediately, sold fresh, or dried. (See

Wheat: The Crop.)

0034 In Europe, most buckwheat is milled into groats,

which are used in porridge, cabbage rolls, or meat

products (especially hamburger), or consumed with

fresh or sour milk. Buckwheat groats with cottage

cheese, sugar, peppermint, and eggs is used as stuffing

in a variety of dumplings. Buckwheat flour is used

with wheat or rye flour and yeast to make fried

specialty products such as bread, biscuits, and other

confectioneries. An extruded, ready-to-eat corn–

buckwheat breakfast product of high nutritional

value is being produced and marketed in western

Europe. This product contains over 14% protein

and 8% soluble fiber. Similar products have also

been developed in Poland and the former USSR.

0035In most countries, the quality of buckwheat end

products is controlled by law. According to Canadian

Government Specifications, buckwheat flour must

have 1.5% ash and 1.1% protein nitrogen on a

14% moisture basis, and contain 12% moisture

when delivered. Class B Pancake Mix should contain

more than 40% and less than 50% buckwheat flour

with admixtures of 50% wheat, corn, rice, or soybean

flour.

See also: Cereals: Bulk Storage of Grain; Handling of

Grain for Storage; Dietary Fiber: Properties and Sources;

Fats: Classification; Phenolic Compounds;

Phospholipids: Properties and Occurrence; Protein:

Chemistry; Storage Stability: Parameters Affecting

Storage Stability; Sucrose: Properties and

Determination; Wheat: The Crop; Grain Structure of

Wheat and Wheat-based Products

Further Reading

Campbell CG (1997) Buckwheat: Fagopyrum esculentum

Moench. Rome: International Plant Genetic Resources

Institute (IPGRI).

Campbell CG and Gubbels GH (1986) Growing Buck-

wheat. Agriculture Canada Research Branch. Technical

Bulletin 1986–7E.

DeJong H (1972) Buckwheat. Field Crops Abstracts 25:

389–396.

Ihme N, Kiesewetter H, Jung F et al. (1996) Leg oedema

protection from a buckwheat herb tea in patients with

chronic venous insufficiency: a single-centre, random-

ised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial.

European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 50: 443–

447.

Institute of Soil Science and Plant Cultivation (eds) (1986)

Buckwheat Research 1986, Parts I, II and III. Pulawy,

Poland: Laboratory of Science Publisher.

Kreft I, Javornik B and Dolisek B (eds) (1980) Buckwheat

Genetics, Plant Breeding and Utilization. Ljubljana,

Yugoslavia: VTOZD za agronomijo Biotech. facultate.

Marshall HG and Pomeranz Y (1982) Buckwheat: descrip-

tion, breeding, production and utilization. In: Pomeranz

Y. (eds.) Cereals ’78: Better Nutrition for the World’s

Millions, pp. 201–217. St. Paul: MN: American Associ-

ation of Cereal Chemists.

Mazza G (1988) Lipid content and fatty acid composition

of buckwheat seed. Cereal Chemistry 65: 122–126.

Nagatoma T and Adachi T (ed.) (1983) Buckwheat Re-

search 1983. Miyazaki, Japan: Kuroda-toshado Printing

Co.

698 BUCKWHEAT

Oomah BD and Mazza G (1996) Flavonoids and anti-

oxidative activities in buckwheat. Journal of Agricul-

tural and Food Chemistry 44: 1746–1750.

Wang J, Liu Z, Fu X and Run M (1992) A clinical observa-

tion on the hypoglycemic effect of Xinjiang buckwheat.

In: Lin-Rufa, Zhou Ming-De, Tao Yongru, Li Jianying

and Zhang Zongwen (eds) Proceedings of the 5th Inter-

national Symposium on Buckwheat, 20–26 August

1992, Taiyuan, China. Beijing: Agricultural Publishing

House.

BUFFALO

Contents

Meat

Milk

Meat

C D Khedkar, College of Dairy Technology, Warud

(Pusad), Maharashtra, India

G D Khedkar, Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar Marathwada

University, Aurangabad, Maharashtra, India

G Gyananath, Swami Ramanand Teerth Marathwada

University, Nanded, Maharashtra, India

S D Kalyankar, Marathwada Agricultural University,

Parbhani, Maharashtra, India

Introduction

0001 The world population of buffaloes has been estimated

to be over 140 million heads. It can be seen from

Table 1 that about 97% of these are found in Asia

and the Pacific regions. India has 75 million, China

21 million, Pakistan 14 million, and Thailand 6 mil-

lion, which makes up most of the animals. About

98% of these animals are raised by small farmers

owning not more than 5 acres of land and not more

than five buffaloes.

0002 Buffaloes (Bubalius bubalis) originated from the

Indo-Gangetic plains, thrived in Asia, and have been

a symbol of life, religion, and endurance. Buffaloes

are classified into two classes: swamp buffaloes and

water buffaloes. Buffalo raising mainly supports crop

farming, especially rice cultivation. It is suggested

that water buffaloes were in the service of humans

as early as 2500–2100 bc.

0003 The awareness of the potential of water buffaloes

for meat has increased in recent years throughout the

world due to its high content of lean meat. Buffalo

meat is 25% higher in protein than beef and 50%

lower in cholesterol. Most buffalo meat is derived

from old animals slaughtered at the end of their

productive life. As a result, much of the buffalo

meat sold is of poor quality, but when buffaloes are

properly reared and fed, their meat is tender and

palatable.

0004Average cattle carcass weight in developing coun-

tries was much lower than that in developed countries

and is not increasing rapidly. Therefore, despite a

large increase in the number of animals slaughtered

between 1974–76, 1980–82 and 1995–96, the contri-

bution of developing countries to world beef supplies

tbl0001Table 1 World distribution of buffaloes with slaughter rate and

meat production in some Asian countries

Country Population

(1000 heads)

Slaughtered

(1000 heads)

Slaughter

rate as a

%ofthe

population

Annualmeat

production

(1000 tonnes)

World 129 283 7461 5.8 1006

Asia 125 413 6435 5.1 857

India 64 500 980 1.5 135

China 19 547 1125 5.8 125

Pakistan 13 070 2450 18.7 245

Thailand 6250 288 4.6 73

Nepal 4500 175 3.9 23

Philippines 2980 289 9.7 46

Vietnam 2800 350 12.5 75

Indonesia 2424 221 9.1 35

Burma 2100 118 5.6 20

Bangladesh 1800 21 1.2 2

Laos 1200 125 10.4 27

Sri Lanka 900

Kampuchea 685 53 7.7 8

Malaysia 260 37 14.2 7

Iran 230 66 28.7 10

Iraq 145 20 13.8 3

Reproduced from: FAO (1985) ProductionYear Book of the Food and

Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome: Food and Agriculture

Organization, with permission.

BUFFALO/Meat 699

has not increased proportionally. In view of the im-

mense cattle resources of developing countries – some

65.2% of the world’s total – a priority development

objective in the tropics, where most developing coun-

tries are located, must be to increase productivity per

head of cattle. Developing countries contributed

some 27.8% of world beef and veal production

in 1974–76, rising to 33.3% in 1982 and 39%

in 1996.

Buffalo Nutrition

0005 Buffaloes are mostly located in countries where land,

cultivated forage crops, and pastures are limited.

They are mainly raised on crop residues, sometimes

supplemented with green fodder or byproducts, avail-

able from the processing of cereal grains, oil seeds,

fruit, and vegetables. Buffaloes are known to be good

converters of poor-quality roughage into milk and

meat. They are reported to have a 5% higher digest-

ibility of crude fiber than high-yielding cows and a

4–5% higher efficiency of utilization of metabolic

energy for milk production. Buffaloes can gain as

much as 1 kg in weight per day in good-quality

roughage and concentrates. They digest feed more

efficiently than cattle, particularly when feeds are

fibrous and high in lignin and cellulose.

Carcass Dressing

0006 The best and most hygienic way to dress a carcass is

with the carcass hanging from some kind of hoist.

Whether or not the carcass is hung, the nature of the

dressing technique and the way that the carcass is cut

will depend upon local custom and, of course, upon

variations in marketing techniques which may differ

even within a community. One may find different

categories of butchers, working with different facil-

ities and often situated adjacent to each other, prepar-

ing different cuts of meat to suit a particular market.

0007 In major meat-producing countries the whole side

of meat is dressed and cut, but in many tropical

countries this is not practical. The hot carcass is cut

into several recognizable pieces that facilitate trans-

port which may be on a man’s head, on a cart, or even

in the boot of a taxi. Although such methods expose

the carcass cuts to contamination, they do at least

insure rapid distribution of fresh meat. Most con-

sumers in the tropics still demand fresh and not

chilled or frozen meat.

0008 Hide should be carefully removed, using proper

knives to avoid damage to this valuable byproduct.

The carcass should be washed after dressing. The

stomach and intestine should be cleaned out and

washed, and the contents and washings disposed of

separately, as is the blood. Stomach and gut casings

may be processed in the tripery.

General Examination of the Carcass

0009This should be done in a methodical manner, what-

ever the status of the slaughter house or abattoir

facilities. The criteria laid down, for example in the

UK, regarding methods and stipulations of meat

inspection can also apply to meat inspection in

a tropical environment. Every carcass should be

examined for the following.

State of Nutrition

0010Physiological leanness resulting from lack of feed and

water must be differentiated, as far as possible, from

pathological leanness due to disease. In trade cattle in

the tropics this may be difficult since, in many cases,

cattle on long treks are not only deprived of food, but

exposed to tick-borne diseases. In a temperate climate

the percentage of water within the meat of normal

buffalo is not above 76.5% and the percentage of

protein is about 22% or a ratio of less than 4:1. In

extremely emaciated animals the ratio may be 80%

water and 19% muscle, or greater than 4:1. Emaci-

ated meat has no place in the export market.

Bruising, Hemorrhage, and Discoloration

0011This condition is undesirable in any carcass, whether

it is due to some localized condition, or more gener-

alized conditions, such as helminthiasis, trypanosom-

iasis, and tick-borne diseases. Edema reduces carcass

quality and storage stability of the meat.

Efficiency of Bleeding

0012This is pertinent to any community since it affects

both keeping quality and flavor of meat. Most con-

sumers in the tropics do not eat meat that is improp-

erly bled and because of this local butchers are often

highly suspicious of stunning and new slaughter

methods. They insist on casting the animal and cut-

ting the jugular vessels or cutting off the head,

pithing, or some other slaughter technique that

insures good bleeding-out.

Swelling and Deformities

0013This receives much less attention under slaughter

conditions in the rural tropics, where meat is more

of a luxury for special occasions, than in the larger

abattoirs adjacent to urban communities.

Age and Sex

0014These factors are also not considered in most tropical

countries unless quality meat is required for elite

households or special occasions.

700 BUFFALO/Meat

Abnormal Odors

0015 These do not arouse particular attention in the cattle

and buffalo meat market unless, for example, there is

some specific odor encountered, as in putrefying meat

or in the sweet-smelling meat of rinderpest-infected

animals.

Buffalo Meat Quality

0016 Buffalo carcass has rounder ribs, a higher proportion

of muscle, and a lower proportion of bone and fat

than beef. Buffalo meat is higher in protein content

than the meat of other species. The amino acid com-

position, especially of critical amino acids of skeletal

muscles, is higher than that of the ox. Buffalo beef has

more isoleucine, leucine, lysine, phenylalanine, tyro-

sine, threonine, valine, and histidine but less trypto-

phan, cystine, and methionine than beef. Except for

cystine, the daily allowance recommended by the

Food and Agriculture Organization can easily be met

by carabeef as the principal source of protein. About

100 g of carabeef lean meat per head per day is enough

to meet all the amino acids (except cystine) required

for the body. Buffalo meat has about 44% more lysine

than egg protein. Buffalo meat and beef are in many

ways quite similar, e.g., muscle pH (5.4), shrinkage on

chilling (2%), moisture (76.6%), protein (19%), and

ash (1%). Buffalo fat, however, is always white and

buffalo meat is darker in color than beef because

of more pigmentation and less intramuscular fat

(2–3%), which leads to ‘marbling,’ compared with

beef (3–4% intramuscular fat). Some of the data

regarding carcass components of buffaloes slaugh-

tered at different body weights is given in Table 2.

Detailed Inspection of the Carcass

0017 After a general examination the carcass is subjected

to a more detailed examination. The following is

a summary of procedures applicable in a tropical

environment.

The Head

1. 0018The tongue should be loosened but not detached

and the surface and deep structures inspected.

0019The gums and root of the mouth should be

inspected.

0020The lymph glands around the pharynx and large

salivary gland behind the angle of the jaw are

examined. Lymph glands act as filters of disease

agents and, if swollen, hemorrhagic, or abscessed,

indicate disease in the tissues that they drain.

0021The cheek muscles should be free from oozing

serum and should not be of yellow or greenish

color.

0022The eyes should be examined for microbial

defects.

Abdominal Cavity

0023Stomach, intestines, and spleen The outer, and when

necessary, the inner surfaces of the stomach and

intestines, the surface and substance of the spleen,

and the surfaces of the omentum or loose covering

over the stomach should be examined. The lymph

glands related to these organs are also examined.

0024Liver The surface and substance of the liver should

be examined and the bile ducts incised to check

for the presence of the liver fluke. The thick end of

buffalo livers should be incised and examined in

detail.

0025Kidneys The renal, lymph glands and adrenal

glands should be examined and, when necessary, the

kidneys should be exposed and incised.

0026Uterus and Ovaries The substance of the uterus, its

inner and outer surface should be examined.

Chest Cavity

0027The pluck should be examined before the organs are

separated from each other. Lungs should be examined

by observation and palpitation and, unless obviously

diseased, they should be incised at the base. The heart

covering should be opened and the heart examined

and, if necessary, incised.

Udder

0028This should be incised and examined by observation

and palpation and the associated supermammary

lymph glands should be examined in detail.

tbl0002 Table 2 Effect of body weight on carcass components of

buffaloes

Slaughter

body wt

(kg)

Carcass

wt (kg)

Dressing

(%)

Meat

(%)

Fat

(%)

Bone

(%)

480 277 59.7 66 17 14

446 239 53.6 69 13.1 17.9

356 193 62.8 66.7 12.9 19.7

300 151 51 70 6 19

260 141 55.5 67 12 18

258 139 53.9 67.5 12.7 19.8

161 83 51.4 66.8 9.7 23.5

Reproduced from Mudgal VD and Sharma DD (1993) Buffalo meat. In:

Encyclopaedia of Food Science,Technology and Nutrition, vol. 1, pp. 521–529.

London: Academic Press, with permission.

BUFFALO/Meat 701

Testicles and Penis

0029 The outer surface and substance of the testicles and

penis should be examined. The superficial inguinal

lymph glands or those situated under the skin in the

groin area should be examined in detail.

Feet

0030 The feet should be examined, especially for lesions

suggesting foot-and-mouth disease.

Buffalo Meat Products

0031 Buffalo meat is used as a food item in a similar way to

other meats such as beef (e.g., grilled, fried, etc.). In

South Asia meat curry is also prepared. Buffalo meat

has very good emulsification and binding properties

and is ideal for sausage making. Buffalo meat has all

the properties needed to prepare direct meat products

such as pastarma and gabrovi in Bulgaria, and biltong

in Nepal and Brazil. The common Asian uses of buf-

falo meat are kebabs, koftas and tikkis, bheja, curries,

corned meat, and sausages.

Preservation of Buffalo Meat

0032 Although fresh meat has the highest nutritional value

and is preferred by most consumers, it is frequently

preserved and stored for future consumption. The

four most widely used preservation methods are

drying (including smoking), curing, canning, and

refrigeration. In many cases, combinations of these,

for example, drying and salting, are used together to

produce the desired results.

Drying

0033 Air drying of meat dates back to early human history

and, although commercial techniques for the prepar-

ation of dehydrated meat are available, these are

generally very costly to operate. Air drying is a com-

paratively simple process, provided it is done in hot,

dry weather. Physiological emaciation of cattle, com-

monly found in starved animals, does not interfere

with the final dried product, although the yield from

such carcasses may be low. One of the best known

dried meat products is biltong. Although simple and

cheap to prepare, preslaughter care of animals is

essential for the production of biltong that has good

keeping qualities. The procedures for biltong produc-

tion are as follows:

0034 The carcass meat is cut into long strips of equal

thickness, cutting the fibers lengthwise. The best

dried meat is obtained by physically tearing rather

than cutting the muscles so that groups of fibers

can be dried as a unit.

0035Strips of meat are then salted either by rubbing the

salt by hand just before hanging or strips are left

covered with salt overnight. Spices and peppers

may be added, according to local taste, also salt-

peter, which is a mild preservative which also

imparts a good red color to the meat.

0036The strips of meat are then hung in the sun on gal-

vanized wire in such a fashion that they should not

touch one another, to allow free circulation of air.

0037After about 12 h drying the strips should be re-

moved, straightened, and turned round for the

other side to be properly dried. The time taken

for good drying will depend upon the weather.

0038Where dried meat is to be kept for periods longer

than 4–6 weeks, it may be necessary to smoke it or

to add surface insecticide in low concentrations, if

this is allowed by local ordinances. Such dried

meat is best stored in polythene bags.

0039The advantages of dried meat are due to its high

content of protein, its good keeping qualities if pro-

tected from moisture and attacks of insects such as

beetles, and its retention of minerals and vitamins

after processing. The disadvantages are that exposure

to air and light can bring about rancidity of the fat.

Exposure to moisture will also lead to decomposition

and/or moldiness. Dried meat can be eaten dry, or

raw, or it can be treated as fresh meat, after soaking

in water.

Salting and Drying

0040Salted meat, known as charqui, is first cured in salt

and then dried, and differs from biltong in that it

contains more moisture. When processed, it resem-

bles dried salted fish in appearance. Pieces of fresh

meat for initial curing should be 1.5–2.5 kg in weight

and about 2.25 cm thick. These are first hung for a

period of about 1 h to cool, after which they are then

allowed to drain off on slats. Final curing consists of

placing the pieces of meat in a series of layers with

about 2.25 cm salt between them, to make up a series

of meat/salt layers some 1.25 m high. The pile of

layers is then covered with planks and heavy stones

to press the pile. The next day the layers in the pile are

reversed in position, and this reversal of layer position

continues for 5 days, after which the meat is ready for

drying. This is done by pressing the meat between

planks, or by passing it through a sort of wooden

mangle. In hot, dry climates, sun drying on bamboo

slats or on chicken wire in the early morning and

evening is sufficient. The meat should not be allowed

to overheat, otherwise the fat will melt. This type of

dried, salted meat has good keeping quality. Before

eating it should be soaked in water, which is then

poured away in order to get rid of excess salt.

702 BUFFALO/Meat

Dehydration

0041 Dehydrated meat is prepared using special equipment

to control temperature and humidity, as well as being

carried out under a vacuum. The process is generally

not suited to the developing stages of beef and buffalo

meat industries. The chief advantages of dehydrated

meat are its light weight, ease of storage and

packing, and the reliability and excellence of the

water-reconstituted product. Two major processes of

preparation are the vacuum contact plate process and

the Platt or Zimmerman process. In the Zimmerman

process fresh meat is immersed in heated oil under

vacuum; the oil acts as a medium for the transfer of

heat to the meat. There are certain technical difficul-

ties in removing all the oil from the meat by centrifu-

gation, but this method is cheaper than the vacuum

contact plate process.

Heat Sterilization (Canning)

0042 The principle of this process is that the produce is

sealed in a container after applying heat to kill micro-

organisms which may cause spoilage of the product.

The process is not dissimilar to that of home bottling

of fruit. The basic principles involve heating the

food product sufficiently to kill the microorganisms,

followed by sealing in a vacuum. The length of

heating time will depend on several factors, including

the type of microorganisms to be destroyed, the mois-

ture content and acidity of the product, the amount of

protection offered by fats or oils, and the quantity of

other substances, such as salt, that may be present.

Meat for this process must be properly prepared

before canning and, if necessary, precooked. Oxygen

and air are driven off to provide the vacuum, either by

closing the can under vacuum, or by passing the can

through an exhaust box, where the air and oxygen are

driven off by heat and the can is sealed before

cooking.

Smoking

0043 This is one of the oldest methods of preserving meat,

the simplest method being to hang slices above an

open fire. It imparts good keeping qualities and,

provided the right woods are used, a pleasant flavor.

Smoked meat does not easily go bad and it is also

resistant to flies and beetles. Its longer keeping prop-

erties can be improved by a combination of curing

and smoking. Smoked meat is often prepared for

export in developed countries. For these and to

dampen down the smoke, an alternative method is

to use a large oil or petrol drum, the bottom of which

is removed and the top made into a lid. A fire pit is dug

near the drum and the smoke from the pit is directed

through a covered trench into the base of the drum, in

which the meat is hung. The smoke escapes through

the top, where the lid can be adjusted to control its

rate of flow. Meat for smoking must not come from

fevered or emaciated animals. Such meat remains wet

and flabby and does not smoke well.

0044Meat may be smoked raw or after being cured or

previously cooked. It should be cut along the muscle

fibers into flat slices to allow good smoke penetra-

tion. Large pieces of meat need higher temperatures

and a longer period of smoking. Where salt-cured

meat is used for smoking, the brine should be washed

off the surface of the meat with clean water, otherwise

the salt will form a crust on the surface of the meat

during smoking.

Refrigeration

0045Preservation of meat by this method was first used on

a commercial basis in northern Europe, using natural

ice shipped from the Arctic. Mechanical refrigerators

came into use during the latter part of the nineteenth

century in order to ship meat from the Argentine,

Australia, and New Zealand to Europe. There are

now rapid developments in refrigerator transport of

meat carcasses from production areas to internal con-

sumer markets and for export in some tropical coun-

tries. There are three major temperature ranges at

which buffalo meat is processed by cooling. These

are: the initial cooling range (0 to 5



C), the chilling

range (3–10



C), and the freezing range (10 to

18



C).

Curing and Pickling

0046There are several methods and substances used for

preserving by curing. Some of these are used for curing

pork and other meats, but only those relevant to beef

and buffalo meat will be briefly mentioned here.

Curing is not the same as preserving meat by the use

of antiseptics. Curing agents such as salt, sugar, or

vinegar are harmless for the consumer, and while they

do not kill microorganisms they prevent their multi-

plication. At the same time, they may also impart

special flavors or even improve the flavor of some

products. Antiseptics and certain other chemical pre-

servatives may kill microorganisms, but if improperly

used may be harmful to the consumer, so there is strict

legal control over their use. The following ingredients

are used for curing and preservation: salt and sugar

used in high concentration and also jointly with other

curing ingredients, Bengal saltpeter or potassium ni-

trate, Chile salt peter or sodium nitrate, vinegar, and

various spices. Although spices are mainly used to

impart flavor, they also have some inhibitory action

in high concentrations on microorganisms. Cures

may be used dry, when the dry ingredient is rubbed

BUFFALO/Meat 703

into the surface of the meat, or in solution as in

pickling and brining, or as a mixture.

Utilization of Waste from Buffalo Meat

Industry

0047 The waste (excluding meat, bone, fat, and hide)

amounts to 25% of the live weight. The list of various

wastes obtained from the buffalo meat industry and

their uses is given in Table 3.

Microbiological Quality of Meat

0048 Contamination of buffalo meat may occur through

the water used in the abattoir and meat-processing

plant, equipment used for processing, and personnel

handling the product. The microflora consists of ba-

cilli, micrococci, streptococci, and staphylococci,

Escherichia coli and other coliforms, pseudomonads,

salmonellae, clostridia, yeasts, and fungi. The type of

microflora depends upon the initial source of contam-

ination of the carcass and additional contamination

during subsequent handling of the meat. The stand-

ard plate counts of meat processed in plants are

reported to be around 10

cfu g

1

. The lower number

of organisms in buffalo meat processed in modern

slaughterhouses could be attributed to the better

hygienic measures employed during processing.

Undesirable microbial contamination is possible at

any stage if proper procedures are not followed. Cer-

tain strains of E. coli can cause gastrointestinal dis-

ease in humans, either by enterotoxin production or

by penetrating the intestinal epithelium. Staphylococ-

cus aureus has also been reported in dressed meat. S.

aureus has been reported to be widely distributed in

market meats.

0049It has been confirmed that the hygienic processing

of meat improves the bacteriological quality of meat

and reduces the incidence of food-poisoning organ-

isms. The concept and basis of meat hygiene and

inspection relate to the fundamental principle that

the meat reaching the market is sufficiently well

examined before and after slaughter, as well as during

the process of cutting, dispatching and retailing, to

insure, as far as possible, freedom from diseases

which can be transmitted to humans. In developed

countries optimum precautions can be taken at all

stages, during ante- and postmortem inspection and

transportation and processing stages of the carcass

and byproducts. In developing countries the rigid

criteria of inspection accepted in the developed

world cannot be applied to local marketing, although

much can be and is being done by local authorities

to protect the consumer and abattoir workers from

exposure to infection. The following describes some

of the diseases carried in buffalo meat.

Bovine Tuberculosis

0050There is increasing evidence that bovine tuberculosis,

which is also transmissible to humans, is becoming

more prevalent in the tropics. This may be due to an

increase in the incidence of the disease, or may be an

indication of improved detection. Since infection is by

ingestion of infected meat or milk, adequate inspec-

tion of the carcass, with particular reference to the

lymph glands, is essential. This is a bacterial disease

of both animals and humans and causes gastrointest-

inal infections as well as lung infections. Meat-borne

infections can occur from contamination of meat by

tuberculosis-infected human carriers such as butchers

and handlers and by contact with meat derived from

infected animals during the abattoir routine. Careful

antemortem and postmortem inspection combined

with good slaughter hygiene are essential to reduce

the danger of widespread contamination.

Salmonellosis

0051Salmonella bacteria affect a wide range of domestic

and wild animals, as well as humans. They cause

mainly enteric infections and in the tropics human

gastrointestinal infections caused by salmonellae are

common. Meat-borne infections can frequently

occur, not only by contact with meat derived from

tbl0003 Table 3 Important biochemicals and pharmaceuticals obtained

from the buffalo meat industry

Byproducts Biochemicals /pharmaceuticals

Blood Plasma, serum, albumin, hematinics,

blood-meal

Fibrin Peptone, fibrin foam, fibrin powder,

bioplasm

Pancreas Insulin, glucagons, pancreatin, trypsin,

and chymotrypsin

Lungs and

intestinal

mucosa

Heparin

Liver Liver extract

Thyroid Thyroxine

Pituitary

Anterior Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH),

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH),

prolactin

Posterior Oxytocin, vasopressin

Adrenals Epinephrine (adrenaline)

Testis Hyaluronidase

Gallbladder Bile, bile salts

Heart Cardiolipins, cytochrome C

Spinal cord,

brain

Cholesterol, lecithin

Bones Gelatin, bone morphogenetic protein

(BMP)

Hooves Neats foot oil

704 BUFFALO/Meat