Bhushan B. Nanotribology and Nanomechanics: An Introduction

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The Editor

Dr. Bharat Bhushan received an M.S. in mechanical engineer-

ing from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1971,

an M.S. in mechanics and a Ph.D. in mechanical engineer-

ing from the University of Colorado at Boulder in 1973 and

1976, respectively, an MBA from Rensselaer Polytechnic In-

stitute at Troy, NY in 1980, Doctor Technicae from the Uni-

versity ofTrondheimat Trondheim,Norwayin 1990,a Doctor

of Technical Sciences from the Warsaw University of Tech-

nology at Warsaw, Poland in 1996, and Doctor Honouris Causa from the Na-

tional Academy of Sciences at Gomel, Belarus in 2000. He is a registered pro-

fessional engineer. He is presently an Ohio Eminent Scholar and The Howard

D. Winbigler Professor in the College of Engineering, and the Director of the

Nanoprobe Laboratory for Bio- & Nanotechnology and Biomimetics (NLB

)atthe

Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. His research interests include fundamental

studies with a focus on scanning probe techniques in the interdisciplinary areas of

bio/nanotribology, bio/nanomechanics and bio/nanomaterials characterization, and

applications to bio/nanotechnology and biomimetics. He is an internationally rec-

ognized expert of bio/nanotribology and bio/nanomechanics using scanning probe

microscopy, and is one of the most proliﬁc authors. He is considered by some a pi-

oneer of the tribology and mechanics of magnetic storage devices. He has authored

6 technical books, more than 70 handbook chapters, more than 650 technical pa-

pers, and more than 60 technical reports, edited more than 45 books, and holds 16

U.S. and foreign patents. He is co-editor of Springer NanoScience and Technology

Series and co-editor of Microsystem Technologies. He has given more than 400 in-

vited presentations on ﬁve continents and more than 140 keynote/plenaryaddresses

at major international conferences.

Dr. Bhushan is an accomplished organizer. He organized the ﬁrst symposium

on Tribology and Mechanics of Magnetic Storage Systems in 1984 and the ﬁrst in-

ternational symposium on Advances in Information Storage Systems in 1990, both

of which are now held annually. He is the founder of an ASME Information Stor-

1488 The Editor

age and Processing Systems Division founded in 1993 and served as the founding

chair during 1993–1998. His biography has been listed in over two dozen Who’s

Who books including Who’s Who in the World and has received more than two

dozen awards for his contributions to science and technology from professional so-

cieties, industry, and U.S. government agencies. He is also the recipient of various

international fellowships includingthe Alexander von Humboldt Research Prize for

Senior Scientists, Max Planck Foundation Research Award for Outstanding Foreign

Scientists, and the Fulbright Senior Scholar Award. He is a foreign member of the

International Academy of Engineering (Russia), Byelorussian Academy of Engi-

neering and Technology and the Academy of Triboengineering of Ukraine, an hon-

orary member of the Society of Tribologists of Belarus, a fellow of ASME, IEEE,

STLE, and the New York Academy of Sciences, and a member of ASEE, Sigma Xi

and Tau Beta Pi.

Dr. Bhushan has previouslyworked for the R & D Division of Mechanical Tech-

nology Inc., Latham, NY; the Technology Services Division of SKF Industries Inc.,

King of Prussia, PA; the General Products Division Laboratoryof IBM Corporation,

Tucson, AZ; and the Almaden Research Center of IBM Corporation, San Jose, CA.

He has held visiting professor appointments at University of California at Berkeley,

University of Cambridge, UK, Technical University Vienna, Austria, University of

Paris, Orsay, ETH Zurich and EPFL Lausanne.

Index

1,1



-biphenyl-4-thiol (BPT) 921

2-D FKT model 568

2-D histogram technique 584

2-DEG (two-dimensional electron gas)

219

2-mercaptoethylamine HCl 283

2-pyridyldithiopropionyl (PDP) 283

√

3-Ag 151

3-D bulk state 201

3-D force measurements 93

3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane (3-APTES)

1246

−

(0001) 160

γ-modiﬁed geometry 629

µCP (microcontact printing) 905

abrasive wear 588, 594

Abrikosov lattice 222

accelerated friction 885

acceleration energy 851

accelerometer 1280

acetylene (C

) 853

acoustic emission 612

activation energy barrier 294

actuation, miniaturized 1284

actuator

conventional 1209

external 1217

adatoms 147

adhesion 38, 312, 330, 356, 465, 853, 937,

1205, 1218, 1223, 1249

biodevices 1251

biomolecules 1279

biosensor surface 1246

control 903

force 421, 422, 430, 448, 450, 453,

1258

force, quantized 439, 480

hysteresis 453, 454, 462, 497

hysteresis, relation to friction 462, 463,

467, 468, 470, 471, 484

mechanics 448–451

performance 966

primary minimum 419, 436, 440

protein 1221

rate-dependent 453, 454

reduction 1264

scale dependence 1258

Si(100) 1235

Si100 wafer 1264

silicon nitride 1252

tip-surface 664

adhesion-controlled friction 458–460,

463, 464

adhesive

coating 285

friction force 1236

interaction surface 665

adhesive force 54, 583, 688, 967, 1269

increase 983

intrinsic 902

mapping 970

measurement 320

micromirror 1275

SAM 1240

tip radius 1259

1490 Index

adiabatic limit 289

adsorbate 620

adsorption 281

water 981

water ﬁlm 983

AES (Auger electron spectroscopy)

measurement 893

AFAM (atomic force acoustic microscopy)

AFM (atomic force microscope) 180

3D map 1233

bath cryostat 185

Binnig design 50

calculated sensitivity 87

cantilever 49, 79

carbon nanotube tip 678

commercial 50

contact mode 46

control electronics 100

design optimization 74

designs 119

diamond tip 1230

dynamic mode 208, 214

feedback loop 99

for UHV application 563

instrumentation 74

interferometer 185

manufacturers 50

microscratch technique 930

piezo creep 181

probe construction 59

probes 121

resolution 117

static mode 208

surface height map 878, 879

test 880

thermal drift 180

thermal noise 181

tip 124, 136, 139, 146, 149, 281, 1204,

1213, 1227, 1250–1252, 1257–1260,

1263, 1270, 1275, 1278

tip radius 365

tip sensor design 280

variable temperature 183

vibration isolation 183

Ag 154

Ag trimer 151

air induced oscillations 74

air/water interface 285

559

grains 336

-TiC

composite 336

head 891

alcohol 909

aldehydes 909

alkali halides 155, 156

alkane 908

alkanethiolate, ﬁlm 916

alkanethiols 166

all-ﬁber interferometer 185

aluminum oxide 559

AM-AFM 139

amide 913

Amontons law 359, 453–455, 458, 459,

464, 469, 474, 583

amorphous carbon 846, 1245

chemical structure 854

coatings 854, 865

amorphous surfaces 420

amplitude modulation (AM) 139

mode 47

SFM (scanning force microscope) 208

anatase TiO

(001) 160

anchor group 914

angle of twist formula 86

anisotropy 635

of friction 572

annealing eﬀect 1319

antibody 1246

antigen 279

complex 295

recognition 292

arc discharge 849

Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) 299

artifacts 182

as-deposited ﬁlm 1315

assembled nanotube probes 122

association process 280

atomic 655

friction 655

manipulation 188

motion imaging 189

atomic force acoustic microscopy (AFAM)

Index 1491

atomic force microscope (AFM) 37, 46,

112, 135, 146, 165, 166, 280, 312,

420, 422, 424, 480, 486, 521, 608,

656, 741, 793, 918, 959, 960, 1204

atomic resolution 44, 129, 139–141, 199,

280

image 150

imaging 146

atomic-scale

dissipation 598

force measurement 73

friction 655, 692, 693

image 39, 64, 209

stick-slip 697

atomically

rough diamond surfaces

688

sharp tips 686

attraction, long-range 427, 445

attractive force–distance proﬁle 288

attractive interaction 964

Au(111) 194

backbone chain 914

background noise 539

BaF

157

ball-on-ﬂat tribometer 1225

bare surfaces 689

Barnstead Nanopure 529

batch fabrication

nanotube tip 126

techniques 114

beam-deﬂection FFM 559

bending stiﬀness 77

Berkovich

pyramid 621

tip 876

CaCu

8+δ

(BSCCO) 205

bias voltage 42

bimorph 548

binary compounds 155

bioadhesion 1224, 1251

biofet 1219

biological surfaces 300

biomaterials 646

biomembrane force probe (BFP) 285

bioMEMS (biological or biomedical

microelectromechanical systems)

1199, 1200, 1204–1206, 1215, 1216,

1220, 1222, 1224, 1245, 1246, 1256,

1284

mechanical properties 1224

biomolecular coating 1250

biomolecules, adhesion 1279

bioNEMS (biological or biomedical

nanoelectromechanical systems)

1199, 1200, 1204–1206, 1222, 1224,

1245, 1256, 1284

mechanical properties 1224

biosensor 1204, 1215, 1246

implanted 1219

microarray 1219

surface adhesion 1246

biotin 281

biotin-directed IgG 281

biotinylated tip 300

biphenyl 188

birefringent crystal 83

blister test 614

Bloch

states 199

wave 199

block-like debris 886

Boltzmann distribution factor 546

bond

breakage 280

lifetime 289

strength 426

bond-order potential 658

bonded lubricant ﬁlm 964

bonding energy 137

boron ion implantation 46

bottom-up approach 1284

boundary

ﬁlm formation 959

low-viscosity layer 526

lubricant 959, 960

lubricant ﬁlm 903

lubrication 456, 457, 459, 474, 479,

480, 942, 966

lubrication measurement 330

slip 443

bovine serum albumin (BSA) 281, 1246

BPT 1240

BPTC 1240

bridging of polymer chains 445, 446

broken coating chip 879

1492 Index

brush see polymer brush

bubble 442

buckling 869, 873, 1301

force 121

stress 874

bulge test 614

bulk

atoms 138

conduction band 194

diamond 846, 856, 859

ﬂuid 525

graphitic carbon 888

micromachining 1224, 1279

phonon modes 660

state 201

xenon 214

844

166, 584, 844, 845

ﬁlm 44, 718

island 573, 575

multilayered ﬁlm 166

ultralow friction 719

CaF bilayer on Si(111) 157

CaF

157

(111) 157, 159

(111) surface 592

tip 592

calibration 625, 626

cantilever 137, 145, 288

axis 186

beam array (CBA) 1263

deﬂection 49, 113, 138, 141, 185, 287,

558, 559

deﬂection calculation 68

eﬀective mass 560

eigenfrequency 181

elasticity 565

ﬂexible 48

foil 114

material 60, 138

motion 46

mount 54

Q-factor 208, 209

resonance behavior 78

resonance frequency 1307

spring constant 291, 293

stainless steel 875

stiﬀness 58, 324

thermal noise 208

thermomechanical noise 208

thickness 559, 560

triangular 60, 77, 86

untwisted 53

cantilever-based probes 208

capacitance detection 89

capacitive

detection 98

detector 47

displacement sensor 1312

capillary

force 419, 440, 448, 449

wave spectrum 537

waves of water 537

capped nanotube 682

tip 682

carbon 843

crystalline 843, 844

diamond-like (DLC) 1229, 1235, 1245

diamond-like coatings 1214

ﬁlm 966

friction chains 1240

magnetron sputtered 853

unhydrogenated coating 860

carbon nanotube (CNT) 197, 198, 718,

1204

mechanical properties 120

tip 65, 117, 120, 318

carbon–carbon distance 212

carboxylates (RCOO

−

) 166

carboxylic acid 909

carrier gas 860

Casimir force 418

catalysis 155

cathodic arc carbon 865

cell adhesion 281

CeO

(111) 160

ceramic slider 889

CFM (chemical force microscopy) 300

characteristic distance 485

charge

exchange interaction 418, 427, 430

ﬂuctuation force see ion correlation

forces

transfer 162, 430

transfer interaction 430

Index 1493

charge density wave (CDW)

202

chemical

bond 137, 169

bonding 139, 150, 151, 154, 962

bonding force 48

characterization 854

force 136, 137, 141, 146, 170

force microscopy (CFM) 300

grafting 1240

heterogeneity 454

mechanical polishing (CMP) 1282

vapor deposition (CVD) 846, 1208

chemisorption 959

chip, bioﬂuidic 1216

Co clusters 198

CO on Cu(110) 188

Co−O ﬁlm on PET 383

co-transporter 300

coated tips 684

coating

biomolecular 1250

continuity 891

damage 886

failure 883

friction and wear behavior 664

friction coeﬃcients 686

hardness 881

hydrophobic 1279

mass density 856

microstructure 855

substrate interface 882

thickness 870, 873

coeﬃcient of friction see friction coef-

ﬁcient, 318, 340, 359, 471, 562, 864,

875, 886, 889, 937, 970, 978, 1226

lubricants 724

relationship 68

Si(100) 1238

Si(111) 1228

Z-15 1238

Z-DOL (BW) 1238

coeﬃcient, eﬀective 584

cognitive ligands 280

coherence length 194

cold welding 431, 432, 473

collapsed polymers 522

colloidal

forces 418

probe 425

colossal magneto resistive eﬀect 220

comb drive 1307

complex bonds 294

component surface roughness 1261

compressive

forces nanotube 721

stress 861, 873, 1316

computational studies, tribological

processes 655

computer simulation 474

forces 432, 437, 439, 443, 447, 450, 480

friction 432, 462, 464, 473, 477, 480,

482, 483, 488, 494, 497

concentration

correlation 540

critical 590

conﬁnement 418, 419, 457, 479, 495, 496

of ﬂuids 517

conformation 964

conformational defect 928

constant

amplitude mode 157

current mode 42

force mode 100

height mode 42

constant-NVE 663

contact

angle 904

angle of SAM 925

apparent macroscopic 458, 466, 474

area 425, 590, 592, 628, 643

conductance 588

elastic 633

electriﬁcation 430

mechanics

see adhesion mechanics

mode 114

potential diﬀerence 219

printing 905

resistance 612

spiking 1274

stiﬀness 611, 625, 630,871

stress 979

ue molecular 424, 425, 449, 451, 459,

464, 466, 467, 497

value theorem 465

1494 Index

contact-start-stops (CSS) 1138

contamination 49

continuous stiﬀness measurement (CSM)

870

continuum

model 569

theory 433, 435, 438, 440, 455, 475

contrast 210

formation 155

control system 94, 99

controlled

desorption 188

geometry (CG) 45

Cooper pairs 203

copper

surface adhesion 689

surface wear 689

tip 594, 689

correlation, in-plane 549

Couette ﬂow 456, 494

Coulomb

force 154

interaction potentials 659

law of friction 578

covalent bonding

modeling of materials 658

Cr coating 206

Cr(001) 199

crack spacing 382

cracks 867

crater formation, surface 668

creep 182, 613

eﬀect 390

critical

concentration 590

degree of bending 1309

load 864

normal load 944

position 566

shear stress 457–459, 467, 480, 483

surface tension 935

temperature 193, 209

velocity 484, 489, 490, 493

crosslinked BPT (BPTC) 921

crosstalk 101

cryostat 182

crystal

structure 49

surfaces 118

crystalline

carbon 843, 844

surfaces 420

CSM (continuous stiﬀness measurement)

870

Cu(100) 571, 573

Cu(111) 194, 571, 573, 598

surface states 199

tip 593

cube corner 621, 636

cuprates 205

current density eﬀect 1319

cut-oﬀ distance 430, 463

CVD (chemical vapor deposition) 846

cyclic fatigue 870, 1318

O 196

damage 432, 455, 459, 466, 467, 469,

472–474, 486

damage mechanism 879

damping 157

pneumatic 185

Deborah number 479

debris 886

Debye

frequency 661

length 434, 437

defect

motion 182

nucleation 632

production 591

deﬂection

measurement 138

noise 209

deformation 424, 425

elastic 449, 475, 476, 584

plastic 432, 474

delamination 636, 861, 869, 873

Demnum-type PFPE, lubricant ﬁlm 971

dental enamel 646

depletion

attraction 418, 445

interaction 445

stabilization 418, 445

deposition

rate 851

techniques 848, 850

Derjaguin approximation 421, 437, 440

Index 1495

Derjaguin–Landau–Verwey–

Overbeek (DLVO) theory 436

Derjaguin–Muller–Toporov (DMT)

model 584

theory 449

design rule 76

detection systems 49, 79

dewetting 970, 1236, 1268

DFM (dynamic force microscopy) 208,

301, 316

DFS (dynamic force spectroscopy) 294

diamond 114, 125, 625, 844, 845

coating 860, 903

ﬁlm 846

friction 693

like amorphous carbon (DLC) coating

686, 855

like carbon (DLC) 381, 824, 1235

nanoindentation 676

tip 323, 592, 875, 883, 918, 966, 1227,

1230

dielectric breakdown 613

diﬀusion 189

coeﬃcient 966

parameters 189

retardation 547

rotational 517

thermally activated 182

diﬀusion coeﬃcient

translational 540

diﬀusive relaxation 289

digital

feedback 99

light processing (DLP) 1211

light switch 1211

micromirror device (DMD) 1199, 1273

signal processor (DSP) 42

dilation 462, 482, 483, 496

dimension 137

dimer structure 149

dimer–adatom–stacking (DAS) fault 147

dip-coating technique 962

dipole molecule 906

directly growing nanotubes 124

disjoining pressure 974

dislocation

line tension 635

motion 457

nanoindentation 669

nucleation 622

stick-slip 697

dispersion force 170

dissipation measurement 557

dissociation 280

distortion 97

dithio-bis(succinimidylundecanoate) 281

dithio-phospholipids 284

DLC (diamond like carbon) 1245,

1266–1269, 1279

coating 382, 846, 849, 864, 882, 891,

1279

coating microstructure 871

DLVO interactions 426, 436–438

DMT (Derjaguin–Muller–Toporov)

model 620

theory 449

DNA 166, 281

analysis 1216

domain pattern 220

DOS structure 193

double-layer interaction 418, 434,435,

437

doubly clamped beam 1306

drift states 201

driving frequency 80

drug-delivery device 1221, 1222

dry sliding friction 689

dry surfaces 459, 490

forces 427, 431

friction 458, 466, 485, 487

Dupré equation 455

durability Si(100) 1235

dynamic

AFM 139, 141

force microscopy (DFM) 301, 316

force spectroscopy (DFS) 294

friction see kinetic friction

interactions 419, 420, 457, 475, 479,

480

light scattering (DLS) 547

mode 47

operation mode 139

dynamical response 546

EBD (electron beam deposited) tips 119

ECR (electron cyclotron resonance) CVD

848,

877,

1245

1496 Index

coating 885

edge channels 219

EELS (electron resonance loss spec-

troscopy) 855

eﬀective

coeﬃcient of friction 584

ligand concentration 292

mass 209

shear stress 587

spring constant 566, 580

viscosity 479, 494

EFM 180, 219

elastic

contact 633

deformation 584

modulus 451, 625, 863, 864

tip-surface interaction 675

elasticity 209

elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication 456,

457, 475, 476, 479

electric force gradient 58

electrochemical

AFM 59

etch 131

etched tips 131

etching 114

STM 44

electromagnetic forces 427

electromigration 188, 1274

electron

beam deposition (EBD) 119

cyclotron resonance chemical vapor

deposition (ECR-CVD) 848, 852

energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) 851

interactions 201

tunneling 39

electron–electron interaction 194

electron–phonon interaction 201

electronegativity 906

electronic noise 50

electrophoretic separations 1220

electrostatic

binding 283

force 137, 217, 418, 419, 427, 430, 434,

438

force interaction 149

force microscopy 218

interaction 156

potential 220

embedded atom method (EAM) 659

embedding energy 659

embossing 905

end deﬂection 1302

end group 964

endothelial cell surface 296

energies, MD simulations 657

energy

barrier 289

dissipation 157, 453–455, 459,

461–463, 465, 466, 471, 485, 597, 928

resolution 191

entangled states 457

entropic force 447

epitope mapping 303

equilibrium

interactions see static interactions

true (full) or restricted 445

ester 909

ethanolamine 281

ether 909

Euler

buckling criterion 1301

equation 76

examples of NEMS 1204

exchange

carrier plate 564

force interaction 163

force microscopy 165

interaction 163

external

noise 182

normal load 967

vibrations 43

Eyring model 579

Fab molecule 281

fabrication

methods 1279

nanostructures 1281

face-centered cubic (fcc) 844

failure mechanism 890

Fano resonance 199

fatigue 870

crack 887

damage 871

failure 1318

life 864