Baggott J. The Quantum Story: A History in 40 Moments

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the quantum story

430

233 ‘At some point in the fall of 1967, I think while driving to my ofﬁ ce at MIT . . .’,

Steven Weinberg, Nobel Lecture, 8 December 1979, p. 548.

233 ‘My God, this is the answer to the weak interaction!’, Steven Weinberg,

interview with Robert Crease and Charles Mann, 7 May 1985. Quoted in

Crease and Mann, p. 245.

234 ‘Literally nothing but the shadows of the images’, Plato, The Republic, Book

VII, 360 BCE.

234 ‘We are in such a cave, imprisoned by the limitations on the sorts of experi-

ments we can do . . . ’, Steven Weinberg, Nobel lecture, 8 December 1979, p. 556.

24: Deep Inelastic Scattering

238 ‘. . . like smashing two pocket watches together to see how they are put

together’, Richard Feynman, interview with Michael Riordan, 14 and 15

March 1984. Quoted by Riordan, p. 152.

240 ‘I brought it in mainly as a desperate attempt to interpret the rather striking

phenomenon of point-like behaviour’, James Bjorken, Proceedings of the 1967

International Symposium on Electron and Photon Interactions at High Energy, Stan-

ford, California, 5–9 September 1967, p. 126. Quoted in Riordan, p. 140.

240 ‘The analysis programs had to be rewritten as we continued to test the

workings of the spectrometer hardware . . .’, Richard Taylor, ‘The Discovery

of the Point-like Structure of Matter’, invited talk presented at the Discus-

sion Meeting on the Quark Structure of Matter, Royal Society of London,

England, 24–25 May, 2000, p. 7.

241 ‘. . . wondering how Balmer may have felt when he saw, for the ﬁ rst time, the

striking agreement of the formula that bears his name . . .’, Henry W. Kend-

all, Nobel Lecture, 8 December 1990, p. 694.

243 ‘All my life I’ve looked for an experiment like this . . .’, Richard Feynman,

interview with Paul Tsai, 3 April 1984. Quoted in Riordan, p. 150.

244 ‘I’ve really got something to show youse guys . . .’, Richard Feynman, quoted

by Jerome Friedman in an interview with Michael Riordan, 24 October

1985. Quoted in Riordan, p. 151.

25: Of Charm and Weak Neutral Currents

247 ‘You have to remember the ﬂ avour of the time . . .’, James Bjorken, interview

with Robert Crease and Charles Mann, 10 May 1983. Quoted in Crease and

Mann, p. 291.

notes and sources

431

248 ‘The problem which was explicitly posed in 1961 was solved, in principle, in

1964 . . .’, Sheldon Glashow, Nobel Prize lecture, p. 499.

249 ‘Every day, invariably, one of us would come up with an idea . . .’, John Ili-

opoulos, interview with Robert Crease and Charles Mann, 8 May 1984.

Quoted in Crease and Mann, p. 316.

251 ‘Psychological barrier’, Steven Weinberg, quoted by John Iliopoulos in an

interview with Michael Riordan, 4 June 1985. Quoted in Riordan, p. 211.

251 ‘Of course, not everyone believed in the predicted existence of charmed

hadrons’, Sheldon Glashow, Nobel Prize lecture, p. 500.

251 ‘I do not care what and how . . .’, Martinus Veltman, private communication

to Andrew Pickering, quoted in Pickering, p. 178.

252 ‘It nearly works. You just have some factors of two wrong’, and subsequent

quotes, Gerard ‘t Hooft, interview with Robert Crease and Charles Mann, 26

September 1984. Quoted in Crease and Mann, pp. 325–6.

252 ‘. . . the psychological effect of a complete proof of renormalisabiity has been

immense’, Martinus Veltman in Hoddeson, et al., p. 173.

253 ‘Either this guy’s a total idiot . . .’, Sheldon Glashow, as quoted by David

Politzer, interview with Robert Crease and Charles Mann, 21 February 1985.

Quoted in Crease and Mann, p. 326.

255 ‘I put them out of their misery and told them . . .’, Sheldon Glashow, inter-

view with Robert Crease and Charles Mann, 29 August 1983. Quoted in

Crease and Mann, p. 358.

26: The Magic of Colour

258 ‘In memory of that occasion . . .’, Murray Gell-Mann, in Hoddeson, et al.,

p. 629.

259 ‘Speciﬁ cally these ﬁ ndings suggest the presence, in protons and neutrons . . .’,

Walter Sullivan, New York Times, 25 April 1971. Quoted in Riordan, p. 179.

260 ‘We gradually saw that that [colour] variable was going to do everything for

us!’, W.A. Bardeen, H. Fritzsch and M. Gell-Mann, Proceedings of the Topical

Meeting on Conformal Invariance in Hadron Physics, Frascati, May 1092. Quoted

in Crease and Mann, p. 328.

260 ‘In preparing the written version . . .’, Murray Gell-Mann in Hoddeson, et al.,

p. 631.

261 ‘The one hole left in this thing was gauge theories . . .’, David Gross, inter-

view with Robert Crease and Charles Mann, 2 April 1985. Quoted in Crease

and Mann, p. 332.

the quantum story

432

261 ‘He spoiled me. I thought they’d all be that good’, David Gross, quoted in

Woit, p. 89.

262 ‘Um, hum. That’s very interesting – except for one problem . . .’, and subse-

quent quotations, David Politzer, interview with Crease and Mann, 21 Feb-

ruary 1985. Quoted in Crease and Mann, p. 334.

263 ‘It was a tremendous eye-opener . . .’, Riordan, p. 236.

263 ‘The theory had many virtues and no known vices . . .’, Murray Gell-Mann in

Hoddeson, et al., p. 633.

27: The November Revolution

266 ‘There are just three possibilities . . .’, Sheldon Glashow, Proceedings of the

Fourth International Conference on Experimental Meson Spectroscopy, Boston,

26–27 April 1974, p. 392. Quoted in Riordan, p. 295.

266 ‘. . . the broken remnant of a single uniﬁ ed gauge group that existed in the

distant past’, John Iliopoulos, in J.R. Smith (ed.), Proceedings of the Seventeenth

International Conference on High Energy Physics, London, 1–10 July 1974, Section

III, pp. 97–100. Quoted in Crease and Mann, p. 358.

267 ‘You don’t want to say you’ve found a new state of matter on the basis of one

event . . .’, Robert Palmer, interview with Robert Crease and Charles Mann,

18 May 1983. Quoted in Crease and Mann, p. 361.

270 ‘I hear you got a bump at 3.1’, and subsequent exchanges, Melvin Schwartz,

interview with Crease and Mann, 19 February 1985. Quoted in Crease and

Mann, p. 375.

272 ‘Burt, I have some interesting physics to tell you about . . .’, and subsequent

exchanges, Burton Richter, Adventures in Experimental Physics, 5, 1976, p. 147.

Quoted in Riordan, p. 287.

273 ‘Sam! It’s the same thing! It has to be right!’, Burton Richter, interview with Rob-

ert Crease and Charles Mann, 5 July 1983. Quoted in Crease and Mann, p. 380.

28: Intermediate Vector Bosons

278 ‘The pressure to discover the W and Z was so strong . . .’, Pierre Darriulat, in

Cashmore, et al., p. 57.

279 ‘The idea seemed too far-fetched at the time . . .’, Simon van der Meer, quoted

in Brian Southworth and Gordon Fraser, CERN Courier, November 1983.

281 ‘Most likely, if CERN hadn’t bought Carlo [Rubbia]’s idea . . .’, Pierre Darriu-

lat, in Cashmore et al., p. 57.

notes and sources

433

283 ‘They look like Ws . . .’, Carlo Rubbia, quoted in Brian Southworth and

Gordon Fraser, CERN Courier, November 1983.

283 ‘His talk was spectacular . . .’, Lederman, p. 357.

29: The Standard Model

289 ‘The Higgs particle itself has never been detected . . .’, ‘t Hooft, p. 115.

290 ‘This is a mathematical description of all known particles . . .’, ‘t Hooft,

p. 114.

290 ‘The idea is that twenty or so numbers . . .’, Lederman, p. 363.

292 ‘Throw deep,’ Ronald Reagan, quoted in Lederman, p. 380.

292 ‘Pave the LEP tunnel with superconducting magnets,’ Carlo Rubbia, quoted

in Lederman, p. 381.

293 ‘Well, those were great days . . .’, Steven Weinberg, in Cashmore, et al., p. 20.

30: Hidden Variables

297 ‘May have to sit for a while’, Albert Einstein, quoted by Bohm in an inter-

view with Maurice Wilkins, late 1980s. Quoted in Peat, p. 92.

297 ‘Thorough American’, Princeton University press release, 27 May 1949.

Quoted in Peat, p. 95.

29 8 ‘I found it hard to accept Bohm’s decision . . .’, Wheeler, p. 216.

29 8 ‘Hard to concern myself . . .’, David Bohm, letter to Miriam Yevick, 7 January

1952. Quoted in Peat, p. 105.

299 ‘EPR’s criticism has, in fact, been shown to be unjustiﬁ ed . . .’, Bohm, Quan-

tum Theory, p. 611.

301 ‘This encounter had a strong effect on the direction of my research . . .’,

David Bohm, Zygon, 20, 1985, pp. 113–114. Quoted in Jammer, Einstein and

Religion, p. 227.

302 ‘The usual interpretation of the quantum theory is self-consistent . . .’, David

Bohm, Physical Review, 85, 1952, p. 169.

304 ‘In this point we are in agreement with Bohr . . .’, David Bohm, Physical Review,

85, 1952, pp. 187–188.

305 ‘. . . if we cannot disprove Bohm, then we must agree to ignore him’, J. Rob-

ert Oppenheimer, quoted by Max Dresden at a meeting of the American

Physical Society, Washington, May 1989, and conﬁ rmed in a subsequent

interview with, and letter to, F. David Peat. Quoted in Peat, p. 133.

the quantum story

434

305 ‘Have you noticed that Bohm believes . . .’, Albert Einstein, letter to Max

Born, [date?], 1952. Quoted in John S. Bell, Proceedings of the Symposium on

Frontier Problems in High Energy Physics, Pisa, June 1976, pp. 33–45. This paper

is reproduced in Bell, pp. 81–92. The quote appears on p. 91.

31: Bertlmann’s Socks

307 ‘A theory founded in this way on arguments of manifestly approximate

character . . .’, John Bell, Proceedings of the International School of Physics ‘Enrico

Fermi’, Course IL: Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, Academic Press, New

Yor k, 1971, pp. 171–181. Reproduced in Bell, pp. 29–39. This quote appears

on p. 29.

307 ‘. . . no theory of mechanically determined hidden variables . . .’, Bohm, Quan-

tum Theory, p. 623.

308 ‘Probably I got that equation into my head and out on to paper . . .’, John Bell,

in Davies and Brown, p. 57.

313 ‘The philosopher in the street, who has not suffered a course in quantum

mechanics . . .’, John Bell, Journal de Physique Colloque C2. suppl. au numero 3.

Tome 42, 1981, pp. 41–61. Reproduced in Bell, pp. 139–158. This quote appears

on p. 139.

316 ‘If the [hidden variable] extension is local it will not agree with quantum

mechanics . . .’, John Bell, Epistemological Letters, November 1975, pp. 2–6. This

paper is reproduced in Bell, pp. 63–66. This quote appears on p. 65.

317 ‘In a theory in which parameters are added to quantum mechanics . . .’, John

Bell, Physics, 1, 1964, pp. 195–200. This paper is reproduced in Bell, pp. 14–21.

The quote appears on p. 20

32: The Aspect Experiments

320 ‘Are you tenured?’ and subsequent dialogue, John Bell and Alain Aspect,

quoted in Aczel, p. 186.

323 ‘Our results, in excellent agreement with quantum mechanical predic-

tions . . .’, Alain Aspect, Philippe Grangier and Gérard Roger, Physical Review

Letters, 47, 1981, p. 463.

327 ‘But of course we already know that . . .’, Alain Aspect, in Davies and Brown,

p. 43.

327 ‘It is a very important experiment . . .’, John Bell, in Davies and Brown,

p. 52.

notes and sources

435

33: The Quantum Eraser

329 ‘If an apparatus is capable of determining . . .’, Richard P. Feynman, Robert

B. Leighton and Matthew Sands, The Feynman Lectures on Physics. Volume III.

Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1965, p. 1–9.

332 ‘Bohr would not have been distressed by the outcome of these consid-

erations . . . ’, Marlan Scully, Berthold-Georg Englert and Herbert Walther,

Nature, 351, 1991, p. 111.

335 ‘Realizing quantum erasure in an experiment . . .’, Philip Yam, Scientiﬁ c Amer-

ican, January 1996, p. 30.

337 ‘The use of mutually exclusive settings of the experimental apparatus . . .’,

Thomas Herzog, Paul G. Kwiat, Harald Weinfurter and Anton Zeilinger,

Physical Review Letters, 75, 1995, p. 3037.

34: Lab Cats

339 ‘What exactly qualiﬁ es some physical systems to play the role of “meas-

urer” . . .’, John Bell, Physics World, 3, 1990, p. 34.

340 ‘The idea that elimination of coherence . . .’, John Bell, Physics World, 3, 1990,

p. 36.

345 ‘The quantum dynamics of the SQUID is determined . . .’ Jonathan R. Friedman,

Vijay Patel, W. Chen, S.K. Tolpygo and J.E. Lukens, Nature, 406, 2000, p. 45.

346 ‘. . . symmetric [anticlockwise + clockwise] and anti-symmetric [anticlock-

wise − clockwise] quantum superpositions of macroscopic states . . .’, Caspar

H. van der Wal, A.C.J. ter Haar, F.K. Wilhelm, R.N. Schouten, C.J.P.M. Har-

mans, T.P. Orlando, Seth Lloyd and J.E. Moonij, Science, 290, 2000, p. 773.

347 ‘. . . we can say that on a logarithmic scale we have come about 40% of the

way . . .’, A.J. Leggett, Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter, 14, 2002, p. R447.

347 ‘There are many open questions regarding entanglement . . .’, Vlatko Vedral,

Nature, 453, 2008, p. 1007.

35: The Persistent Illusion

351 ‘But in physics we are normally accustomed to require . . .’, A.J. Leggett,

Foundations of Physics, 33, 2003, pp. 1474–5.

352 ‘There is in a case like that just considered no question of a mechanical dis-

turbance . . .’, Niels Bohr, Physical Review. 48, 1935, 696–702. Reproduced in

Wheeler and Zurek, p. 145. This quote appears on p. 148

the quantum story

436

354 ‘We believe that our results lend strong support to the view . . .’, Simon

Gröblacher, Tomasz Paterek, Rainer Kaltenbaek, Caslav Brukner, Marek

Zukowski, Markus Aspelmeyer and Anton Zeilinger, Nature, 446, 2007,

p. 875.

354 ‘Quantum mechanics is very fundamental . . .’, Anton Zeilinger, quoted in

SEED, May/June 2008, p. 57.

356 ‘We have to remember that what we observe is not nature in itself . . .’,

Heisenberg, Physics and Philosophy, p. 46.

357 ‘Reality is merely an illusion . . .’, quotation attributed to Einstein. See, for

example, Baggott, A Beginner’s Guide to Reality, p. 228.

357 ‘I’m in a small minority with that point of view . . .’, Anthony Leggett, quoted

in SEED, May/June 2008, p. 58.

36: The Wavefunction of the Universe

361 ‘Due to electron motion inside the atom . . .’, Albert Einstein, Preussische

Akademie der Wissenschaften (Berlin) Sitzungsberichte, 1916, p. 688. Quoted in

Gorelik and Frenkel, p. 86.

363 ‘That fall, ﬁ fteen graduate students enrolled in my course . . .’, Wheeler,

p. 228.

366 ‘This result has led me to doubt . . .’, Paul Dirac, quoted in Barbour, p. 2.

369 ‘. . . one therefore comes to the conclusion that nothing ever happens . . .’,

Bryce DeWitt, Physical Review, 160, 1967, p. 1119.

370 ‘The Copenhagen view depends on the assumed a priori existence . . .’, Bryce

DeWitt, Physical Review, 160, 1967, p. 1131.

370 ‘Thus with each succeeding observation (or interaction), the observer

state . . .’, Hugh Everett III, Reviews of modern physics. 29, 1957, p. 454.

371 ‘Everett’s view of the world is a very natural one to adopt . . .’, Bryce DeWitt,

Physical Review, 160, 1967, p. 1141.

37: Hawking Radiation

372 ‘That damned equation’, Barbour, p. 247.

373 ‘If the rays of light that form the event horizon . . .’, Hawking, p. 100.

375 ‘Each black hole law, in fact, turned out to be identical . . .’, Thorne, p. 427.

375 ‘I must admit that in writing this paper . . .’, Hawking, p. 104.

375 ‘How can you make such a crazy claim . . .’, Thorne, p. 429.

notes and sources

437

375 ‘The metal sphere will radiate . . .’, Yakov Zeldovich, quoted by Thorne,

pp. 429–430. The italics are Thorne’s

376 ‘They convinced me that, according to the quantum mechanical uncertainty

principle . . .’, Hawking, p. 104.

377 ‘I didn’t want particles coming out . . .’, Dennis Overbye, Omni, February

1979, quoted in Larsen, p. 40.

377 ‘When I did the calculation, I found . . .’, Hawking, p. 105.

378 ‘. . . Bardeen, Carter and I considered that the thermodynamical similar-

ity . . .’, Stephen Hawking, Nature, 248, 1974, p. 31.

379 ‘I would rather be right than rigorous’, Stephen Hawking, quoted in Thorne,

p. 441.

380 ‘In the front row a young man in a wheelchair . . .’, Carl Sagan, in Hawking,

p. x.

38: The First Superstring Revolution

381 ‘Gauge group of the world’, Howard Georgi and Sheldon Glashow, Physical

Review Letters, 32, 1974, p. 438.

381 ‘And then I realized that this made the proton, the basic building block

of the atom, unstable . . .’, Howard Georgi, interview with Robert Crease and

Charles Mann, 29 January 1985. Quoted in Crease and Mann, p. 400.

383 ‘I worked on it for a long time . . .’, Leonard Susskind, The Landscape: A Talk

with Leonard Susskind, www.edge.org., April 2003.

384 ‘What do you do?’, and subsequent quotation, Leonard Susskind, The Land-

scape: A Talk with Leonard Susskind, www.edge.org., April 2003.

385 ‘I think we were kind of struck by the mathematical beauty . . .’, John

Schwarz, interview with Sara Lippincott, 21 and 26 July, 2000, Oral History

Project, California Institute of Technology Archives, 2002, p. 26.

387 ‘In our discussions with him it became very clear . . .’, John Schwarz, inter-

view with Sara Lippincott, 21 and 26 July, 2000, Oral History Project, Cali-

fornia Institute of Technology Archives, 2002, p. 39.

388 ‘SO(32),’ John Schwarz, interview with Sara Lippincott, 21 and 26 July, 2000,

Oral History Project, California Institute of Technology Archives, 2002,

p. 41.

388 ‘I ﬁ gured out how to do everything . . .’, John Schwarz, interview with Sara

Lippincott, 21 and 26 July, 2000, Oral History Project, California Institute of

Technology Archives, 2002, p. 43.

the quantum story

438

39: Quanta of Space and Time

392 ‘I had no desire to share the fate of Galileo . . .’, Hawking, p. 116.

393 ‘One could now import into general relativity . . .’, Abhay Ashtekar, arXiv:

gr-qc/0410054v2, 19 October 2004, p. 8. Available on http://arXiv.org/

393 ‘. . . new ways of attacking a number of problems . . .’, Abhay Ashtekar, Physi-

cal Review Letters, 57, 1986, p. 2244.

393 ‘All of a sudden we realized that our second or third guess . . .’ and subse-

quent quote, Smolin, Three Roads to Quantum Gravity, p. 40.

394 ‘. . . even at the start we knew that we had in our grasp . . .’, Smolin, Three

Roads to Quantum Gravity, p. 128.

395 ‘I’ve found the answer to all the problems,’ Carlo Rovelli, quoted in Smolin,

Three Roads to Quantum Gravity, p. 129.

39 6 ‘The loops are space because they are the quantum excitations . . .’, Carlo

Rovelli, Physics World, November 2003, p. 2.

397 ‘If we could draw a detailed picture of the quantum state of our universe . . .’,

Lee Smolin, Scientiﬁ c American, January 2004, p. 72.

40: Crisis? What Crisis?

401 ‘Schizophrenia with a vengeance,’ Bryce DeWitt, quoted in Davies and

Brown, p. 36.

402 ‘One distinguished physicist, well versed in quantum mechanics . . .’, Gell-

Mann, p. 138.

402 ‘Copenhagen done right,’ Robert Grifﬁ ths, Physical Review A, 57, 1998,

p. 1604.

402 ‘. . . just as there is no single ‘correct’ choice of consistent [history] . . .’, Rob-

ert Grifﬁ ths, Physical Review A, 57, 1998, p. 1604.

403 ‘We believe Everett’s work to be useful and important . . .’, Gell-Mann,

p. 138.

403 ‘While the ‘classical’ world we observe, in which particles have deﬁ nite posi-

tions . . .’, Smolin, Three Roads to Quantum Gravity, p. 44.

404 ‘So conventional quantum cosmology . . .’, Smolin, Three Roads to Quantum

Gravity, p. 45.

405 ‘As you undoubtedly know . . .’, J. Robert Oppenheimer, letter to Frank

Oppenheimer, 4 June 1934. Quoted in Kragh, Dirac: A Scientiﬁ c Biography,

p. 165–166.

notes and sources

439

405 ‘I don’t like that they’re not calculating anything . . .’, Richard Feynman,

in PCW Davies and Julian Brown, eds., Superstrings: A Theory of Everything,

Cambridge University Press, 1988, p. 194.

405 ‘The fact is that this is a book about physics . . .’, Veltman, p. 308.

406 ‘The failure of the superstring theory programme must be recognised . . .’,

Woit, p. 259.

406 ‘I don’t want to discourage string theorists . . .’, Steven Weinberg, quoted by

Peter Woit, www.math.columbia.edu/ woit/wordpress/, July 2009.

Epilogue: A Quantum of Solace?

407 ‘It’s a fantastic moment,’ CERN bulletin 37–38/2008.

410 ‘I think it will be much more exciting . . .’, Stephen Hawking, quoted in an

article by Mark Henderson, The Times, 9 September 2008.

410 ‘It was a bit of a cheek . . .’, Peter Higgs, quoted by Ian Sample in Sample,

p. 211.