Suny R.G. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Russia, Volume 3: The Twentieth Century
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Tereshkova, Valentina 491
terror
and Black Book of Communism 63
Stalin’s use of 243
use of in civil war 145–6
use of by totalitarian regimes 22, 25, 27
terrorism, Chechen, in Moscow 376
textile industry 121, 458
Thatcher, Margaret, UK prime minister 313
and Gorbachev 699
theatre
freedoms under Gorbachev 629
pre-revolutionary 581
under Bolsheviks 589–90
Third Communist International 145
Third World
and d
´
etente 307–8
Khrushchev and 284
and Western development model 30
see also national liberation movements
(NLMs)
Thomas, Dorothy 12
Thomas, Norman 19
Thompson, E.P. 49
Thorez, Maurice 651
Tikhonov, Nikolai 309, 317, 320
Timasheff, Nicholas S., The Great Retreat 19
Timoshenko, General, head of Stavka 256
Tito, Josip 284
and Khrushchev 676–7
Soviet view of 670
Tobol’sk, communes 414
Todorovskii, Valerii, film director 632
Togliatti, Palmiro, Italian communist 651
Tolstaya, Tatiana 633
Tolstoy, Aleksei, Road to Calvary 587
Tolstoy, Lev [Leo]
adulation of 69, 81
death (1910) 69
popularity of War and Peace (Second World
War) 603
Tomskii, Mikhail 194
and 1928 ‘emergency measures’ 247, 248
and Stalin 185, 186
To
nisson, Jaan, Estonian nationalist 525
‘totalitarian model’, in study of Soviet
Russia 22–8
totalitarianism
applied to both communism and fascism
18, 22, 24–5
critiques of 26–8
and modernisation 31–2
‘spontaneous’ 31
tovaroobmen system of food procurement
159
towns and urban areas 105, 137
‘cleansing’ and deportations 202
de-urbanisation 163, 167, 170
and German advance (1941) 229
growth in size and population 77, 83, 387,
447
influx of dispossessed and fugitives into
203–4
migration to 88, 170, 303, 387
religious revival among workers
81
secret defence industry 241
strained public services 204
see also cities; urbanisation
township (volost’) committees, formed after
February Revolution 117
trade, international
with Britain 641
and Comecon 403
and imperial ambitions 219
nineteenth-century 219, 386
Soviet need for control over 220
by successor states 408
under NEP 392
trade unions 13, 128, 459
legalised 69, 84
role for under Bolsheviks 163
traditional society, in development
(modernisation) model 30
Transcarpathia province
in Czechoslovakia 530, 534–5
Ukraine 530, 539
Transcaucasia
as front in First World War 95
mass deportations from 212
nationalism in 130, 150
oil in 386, 519
soviet governments 496
see also Armenia; Azerbaijan; Chechnya;
Dagestan; Georgia; Transcaucasia
Transcaucasian Republic (1922) 175,
497
transition (transitology) 61–62
Transnistria 537, 40
and Dniester Republic 546
travel, foreign 324
Tret’iakov family, as arts patrons 581
Trifonov, Iurii 622
House on the Embankment 622
Triple Entente (Russia, France and Great
Britain) 95
836
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Troianovskii, Oleg, Khrushchev’s foreign
policy adviser 286
Trotsky, Leon 125, 182
expulsion of 185–6, 245, 246
History of the Russian Revolution 16
and Lenin’s plan to overthrow Provisional
Government 135
The Lessons of October 184
and Red Army 144, 235
rivalry with Stalin 183–5, 655
trial and Western support for 17
use of term Stalinism 49
view of class revolution 716, 717
view of Hitler 648
view of Stalinist USSR 17
Trotskyists, Western 17
Trudovik (Labourist) faction (in State Duma)
74
Truman Doctrine 665
tsar
personal power of 71
see also autocracy
Tsederbaum, Iulii see Martov
Tsereteli, Iraklii (I.G.) 45
and ‘revolutionary defencism’ 123
Tsfasman, Aleksandr 590, 598
Tsipko, Aleksandr 325
Tsvetaeva, Marina 588, 620
tuberculosis 83
Tuchkov, Vladimir, ‘Master of the Steppes’ 634
Tucker, Robert C. 23, 26, 33, 42–3
on Stalinism 50, 52
Tugan-Baranovskii, Mikhail 440
Tukhachevskii, Mikhail, and concept of ‘deep
battle’ 235, 237
Tula province
martial law (1917) 128
peasant out-migration 443
Turchin, V.A. 570
Turdiev, Robert 686
Turkestan 103, 390, 393, 496
Turkey 676
and Azerbaijan 150
Turkic peoples, ethnic conflict in First World
War 103
Turkmenistan 354
natural gas exports 408
Turovskaya, Maya 281
Tvardovskii, Aleksandr 616, 682
U-2 spy plane incident (1960) 287, 684, 686
Ufa Conference (1918) 145
Ukraine 529–30
as autonomous Socialist Soviet 535
Babii Yar massacre of Jews 146, 503
Bukovina province 530, 534, 537
and civil war 496
and collectivisation 398, 536
deportations 538
dissident movement 541, 617
Eastern 529
Ukrainisation policy in 535–6
ethnic networks in 305
famine (1931–33) 16, 40, 196, 398, 424, 500,
536
film studios 625
First World War 95, 530
German occupation 225, 426, 503–4, 538
Greek Catholic (Uniate) Church 529, 541,
544
Green World ecological movement 544
Harvard study project 55
industrialisation 401
Khrushchev and 508–9
land seizures 128
mass deportations from 212
nationalism 91, 102, 149–50, 496, 512
cultural 529
nationalist movement (1987–9) 529, 543–4
native university 499
nature of 130, 523
partisans 503
western 529
peasant uprising 161
post-Soviet 354, 547–8
and break-up of USSR 516
independence (1991) 355, 547
‘Orange Revolution’ 548
workers’ demand for independence 464
Rada (Central Council) 530
Rada newspaper 529
relationship to RSFSR 174, 529
reunification (1939) 537, 539
Rukh movement (Popular Movement for
Restructuring) 544, 546
Taras Shevchenko Ukrainian Language
Society 544
Transcarpathia province 530, 539
Ukrainian Herald 541
Western 529–30
ceded by treaty of Brest-Litovsk 136
nationalism in 529
see also Galicia
Ukrainian Institute of Physics and
Technology, Khar’kov 560
Ukrainian People’s Republic 530
837
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Ukrainians
deportation (First World War) 99
radical nationalism in European states
534–5
Ulam, Adam B. 27
Ulbricht, Walter, East German president 274
Ul’ianov, Vladimir see Lenin, V. I.
Ul’ianovskii, Rostislav 686, 692
Ulmanis, Karlis, Latvia 527, 533
Unger, A. L. 53
Uniate (Greek Catholic) Church, in
Ukraine 529, 541, 544
Union of 17 October (Octobrists) 73
Union of Cinematographers 624
Union of Landowners and Farmers 128
Union of Private Landed Proprietors 436
Union of Private Peasant Farmers 434
Union of Theatre Workers 629
Union for Women’s Equality 470
United Nations 224
human rights standards 307
recognition of former Soviet states 546
United States of America 21, 26, 219
and Afghanistan 312, 692
and America as ‘good society ...in
operation’ 28
assumption of USSR as threat 20–1, 22–8,
241, 306
and Brezhnev 306
cultural influence (early 1920s) 171, 590, 591
and early Soviet Russia 10, 13–14
economic aid to USSR 223, 233
influence over Europe 665, 675, 680
and Japan 652
Khrushchev and 286
and Korean War 672
and nuclear threat 241, 306
and nuclear weapons parity 306, 573
relations with 20, 54, 307, 647
relative strength 241, 306, 336
and Second World War 225, 659
Soviet studies in 10, 37–9, 40
as threat to USSR and socialism 663
view of Bolshevism 9
view of show trials (1936–8) 17
see also Reagan, Ronald
Unity political coalition 378
universities 572
and academic freedom (1905) 550
national (native) 499
women at 479, 484
uprisings and demonstrations, 1905
Revolution 68
Urals
labour camps 202
peasant uprising 161
urban growth 201
urban workers see proletariat (urban workers)
urbanisation 192, 387, 402
under Stalin 200–1
see also towns and urban areas
Urusevskii, Sergei 614
USSR State Council, transitional executive
body (1991) 357
USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics)
in 1985 319–20
in 1991 352–5
constitution 176, 215
contribution to Second World War 224–5
dissolution of (1991) 61–2, 349, 352–7, 516–17,
731
attempt to preserve union (1991) 346–8
resistance to Union Treaty (1991) 347
end of Communist Party power in 328
federal structure of 304, 495–6
foundation (1922) 151, 175–7, 495
as global power 239, 685–700
Gorbachev revolution 322–5
as imperialist 39
international isolation 199, 274
legacy of Stalinism 271, 274
nationality in 176–7, 498, 523–4
and fear of nationalism 540–2
perceived threat of invasion (from 1920s)
220–1
as perverse model of modernisation 30–1,
58
popular discontent and resistance in 53
Russian cultural dominance in 211, 304, 495,
499
as scientific system 549
separatist movements 346
social histories of 58–61
and Soviet Bloc under Khrushchev 283–5,
674
and threat of war (1927) 199, 220
and transfer of power between leaders
289
transformation under Stalin (from 1928)
192–3
war preparations from mid-1930s 221
Western European view of (late 1930s) 221
Western views of communist experiment
12–20
see also economy; foreign policy; Russian
Federation; Soviet identity; Stalinism
838
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Ustinov, Dmitrii, minister of defence 309, 317,
684
and Afghanistan 693
Utesov, Leonid 590, 597, 598
‘Baron von der Pschick’ 602
Uzbekistan 305, 354
and Commonwealth of Independent States
516
Uzbeks, in Osh region 516
Vainer, Arkadii and Grigorii, novelists 627
Vakhtangov, Evgenii 592
Varga, Eugene, Institute of Global Economics
and International Relations 658
Varzar, Vasilii Egorovich, economist 395
Vavilov, N. I., geneticist 559
Veblen, Thorstein, critique of capitalism 14
Verba, Sidney, The Civic Culture (with
Almond) 29
Verbitskaia, Anastasia, novelist 583
Vernadskii, V. I. 551, 555, 561
and political reform 552
Vernadsky, George (1887–1973) 38
Ve r t o v, D z i g a 591
Vialtseva, Anastasia 582
video technology 627
Vietnam, USSR and 308, 673
Vietnam War 306
and effect on US policy 26, 43
villages 86, 126, 414
effect of February Revolution on 117
and NEP co-operatives 179
Soviet 303
workers’ links with 444, 445, 448
see also commune
Vilnius 527
ceded to Poland 528, 533
returned to Lithuania 539
Viola, Lynne 53
violence, state 153
between president and parliament (1993)
362
in collectivisation campaign 195, 398, 422
see also coercion; terror
Vladimir province, peasant out-migration
443
Vladivostok, population growth 201
Vlasov, General, capture by Germans 228, 239
voennizatsiia (militarisation of state
institutions) 215
Volga provinces 128, 161
civil war conflicts 144
deportation of Germans from 226
famine (1921–2) 171–2
urban growth 201
Voloshyn, Avhustyn, president of
Carpatho-Ukraine 535
volunteer army, formation of 143
Volunteer Army of South Russia see Whites
Volynia, German population in 100
Voronin, Vladimir, president of Moldova 548
Vorontsov-Dashkov, viceroy in Georgia 103
Voroshilov, Kliment 242, 657
and formation of GKO 255
and Khrushchev 276, 277
and Stalin 186, 246, 257
Voznesenskii, Andrei 289
Voznesenskii, Nikolai 242, 252, 615
and Leningrad Affair 261–2
in Politburo 260
and Stalin 253
trial and execution of 262
VTsIK see Central Executive Committee of
the Soviets
Vynnychenko, Volodymyr 530
Vyshinsky, Andrei 668
Vysotskii, Vladimir 626
‘Morning Gymnastics’ 729
wage funds 301
wages
agricultural 428, 430
arrears (to 2000) 466
and bonus pay 164, 461
differentials 453
increase under NEP 450
and informal strategies 461
post-Soviet 465
unpaid 198, 372, 465
women’s 487
Wagner, Richard, Die Walk
¨
ure 601
Walder, Andrew 60
Wal
e¸sa, Lech 312
Walker, Martin 15
Wall Street Crash (1929) 645
Wallace, Donald Mackenzie 7
Wallace, Henry A., US vice president 20
Wang Ming (Chen Shaoyu), Chinese
communist 653
War Communism 147, 157–63, 164, 167, 390–1
peasants and 417–19
as short-cut to communism 716, 718
war industries committees 105, 106, 115
Warsaw, German campaign against (1914) 97
Washington, US–USSR summit (1985) 339
A Wealthy Bride (film) 208
839
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Webb, Sidney and Beatrice 33
Weber, Max 29, 60
welfare
provision in rural areas 430
sick-benefit funds 459
supplied by workplace 458, 461
Werth, Alexander 15
West, Nathaniel 18
West, the
academic study of post-war USSR 20–2
anti-communist leaders (in 1980s) 313
assumption of Western master narrative 28
and d
´
etente (c.1965–75) 54, 305–8
economic crises (1970s) 306
and Gorbachev’s reforms 699–700
influence of popular culture 281
left-wing enthusiasm for Bolshevism 8
left-wing ideological support for Soviet
Russia 17–18
optimism about capitalist democracy 6
and perception of international revolution
645
right-wing views of Bolshevism 8
views of communist experiment 12–20
views of visiting writers on Soviet
experiment 10, 12–13, 15–16
and Yeltsin 348
see also Europe; United States of America
White Sea Canal 193, 401, 671
White, Stephen 42
Whites (White Army) 143
Allies’ support for 112, 145
defeat of 146–7
and Muslim populations 151
use of terror 146
Wilhelm II, Emperor of Germany 95
Wilhelm of Urach, German prince 528
Wilson, Edmund 19
An Appeal to Progressives 14
To the Finland Station 18
Wilson, Woodrow, US president 112, 495
view of February 1917 Revolution 8
Witte, Sergei, prime minister 71
and completion of Trans-Siberian railway
67, 386
industrialisation 386
‘woman question’
de-Stalinisation of 485–90
in pre-revolutionary politics 76
women
and 1905 Revolution 76, 470
and 1917 Revolution 471–2
February Revolution 114, 122, 471
attempted emancipation of Muslim 174
Bolshevik emancipation of 156, 173–4
and class 85, 482
social mobility (1930s) 479–80
commodification of sexuality 492
discontent (1970s) 489
domestic responsibilities (‘double burden’)
480, 484, 487–8
education
co-education 473
literacy rates 207, 429
of rural women 489
and effect of market liberalisation 436
elite 470
and end of state regulation 492–3
gendered roles
in employment 172, 427
post-war 483–5
traditional hierarchies 468, 473, 494
and labour movement 122
life expectancy 492
middle-class 122, 469–70
migration to towns 431, 489
obshchestvennitsy (wife-activists) 482
political organisation (1990s) 492–3
portrayal in films and literature 623–4
poverty 492
pre-revolution
and 1905 Revolution 76, 470
in public life 469–70
resistance to Stolypin’s commune
reforms 415
as prisoners 482
in professions 469
as physicians 469, 483
and reforms under Brezhnev 488–90
resistance to collectivisation 423–4,
477–9
return to traditional model 209–10
‘back to home’ movement 491–2
and ideology of domesticity 469–70
and propaganda of motherhood 473,
476–7, 480, 484
and redefinition of wifehood 482
rights within communes 413, 420, 477
rural
and cultivation of private plots 425, 429,
478
in peasant households 86, 413
workers on collectives 478–9
and rural religion 87, 477
Second World War
in armed forces 483
840
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employment 483
and wartime food production 426
single mothers 173
social and cultural success 493–4
socialist activists 470
soldiers’ wives 471
under NEP 172–4, 475–6
unemployment 466, 475, 492
voting in Constituent Assembly elections
122, 471
workers 462, 468, 485
industrial 469, 479, 487
working-class 85
see also women’s emancipation
Women in the USSR yearbook (1990) 491
women’s emancipation
abandoned 479, 490
Bolshevik reforms 156, 173–4, 471, 472
debate under perestroika 491–2
movement for 76, 122, 470
work and 490
and Zhenotdel (Women’s Bureau) 474–5
work permits, temporary, for Moscow
303
worker club movement 592
‘worker-intellectuals’ 585
Worker Opposition group (1920–1) 715
workers 45, 462
adaptation to the system 447–8
artisanal 443, 444
continuing links with villages 440, 444, 445,
448
enthusiasm for rapid industrialisation 48
increasing discontent 456
informal strategies for acquiring goods and
services 461
labour discipline 448–50
and perestroika 405, 465
relations with Bolshevik government 163–6
relationship with workplace management
458–62
reliance on workplace provision 198
resistance to Stakhanovism 397, 453, 455
role in revolution 120–21, 129
‘shock’ 452
socialist competition strategy 452–3
and trade unionism 708
see also labour history; proletariat (urban
workers); working class
workers’ consciousness (soznatel’nost’),
Marxist concept of 83
Workers’ Defence Committee (KOR),
Poland 312
Workers’ Group of War Industries
Committee, and February uprising 115
Workers’ Opposition 164
workers’ organisations
relations with Provisional Government 108
role of Marxists in 75
Workers’–Peasants’ Inspectorate (1920) 155
working class 441–2
end of (under Gorbachev) 462–7
and establishment of soviet power 137–8
and mass culture 579, 582, 590
participation in war industries committees
106
political consciousness among 84–5, 444
rarity of family households 445
reduction in size (during civil war) 163
resistance to Bolshevik practices 163, 165
and Social Democracy 707–10, 711
see also proletariat (urban workers);
workers
working conditions 83, 450
continuous working week (nepreryvka)
452
working hours 83
World of Art movement 81, 582
Wo rld B an k 373
World Youth Festival, Moscow (1957) 281
Wrangel, Baron N. 9
Wrangel, Petr, commander of Whites 112, 146
writers
expelled 620, 621
Khrushchev’s relations with 277
tactics to avoid censorship 621–2
women 469, 470, 493
Writers’ Union 595, 596, 618
powers of control 619, 628
revival of 611
xenophobia
cultural 605–10
in Great Purges 213
Yakovlev, Aleksandr 269, 318, 696, 697
and foreign policy 338
rebuttal of Andreeva letter 326
as reformist 321–2, 325, 347
Yakut peoples, relations with Russians 513
Yalta Agreement (1945) 666
Yeltsin, Boris 61, 369, 702
and 1998 economic crisis 371–4
banning of Communist Party 356
as challenger to Gorbachev 328, 348–9, 352,
357, 516
841
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Yeltsin, Boris (cont.)
and Chechnya’s declaration of
independence 365
conflict with Congress of People’s
Deputies 361–3
and creation of market economy (1991) 358
and dissolution of USSR (1991) 348–9, 355–7,
516
Duma threat to impeach 375
election to Congress (1989) 327, 328
and events of October 1993 361–4
‘family’ network 371
as First Secretary of Moscow Party 320,
325
illness 371, 378
indecision on political system 357–8
legacy 379–80
and new constitution (1993) 363–4
and new freedoms 325
and perestroika 326
and political crisis (1998–9) 374–6
popular support for 330, 335, 354, 377
as president of Russian Republic 328
and presidential elections 366, 369–70
and proposals for economic reform (1990)
334
and Russian Republic independence 347,
516
and Tatarstan 518
Yemen 308, 314
Yevtushenko, see Evtushenko
Yudenich, General 112
Yugoslavia 289, 343
Khrushchev’s relations with 276, 284,
676–7
NATO intervention in Kosovo 703, 704
Yukos oil company 704
Yushchenko, Viktor, president of Ukraine 548
Zamiatin, Evgenii, We (novel) 632
Zaslavskaia, Tat’iana, economist 404, 431
Zasulich, Vera 711
Zelenograd, science city 566
zemstvos
democratisation of (1917) 117
union of (parastatal) 105
Zhang Guo-tao, Chinese communist 653
Zhang Xueliang, Manchurian warlord 653
Zhdanov, Andrei 242, 252, 261, 508, 606
and concept of Soviet identity (NSM) 663,
725
and Eastern Europe 666
and Finland 664
and foreign policy-making 668
as Stalin’s deputy 253
Zhdanov, Iurii, scientist 563, 565
Zhdanovshchina (cultural repression) 606,
663, 668
Zhelezniakov, A. G., sailors’ leader 138
Zhemchuzhina, Polina, wife of Molotov 251
Zhenotdel (Women’s Bureau) 474–5, 477, 478
abolition 479
Zhirinovsky, Vladimir, radical
nationalist 366–8
Zhou En-lai 672
at Twenty-Second Congress 284
Zhukov, General Georgii 255, 654
Zhvanetskii, Mikhail 626
Zinoviev, Aleksandr, The Yawning Heights 574
Zinoviev, Grigorii (1883–1936) 125, 134, 638
and Comintern 644
expulsion from Party 186, 190, 246, 250
and kto-kogo phrase 719
and prospect of Italian revolution 638
and Stalin 184
and Trotsky 185, 245
and use of propaganda 715
Zionism 91
Ziuganov, Gennadii Andreevich, presidential
candidate (1996) 369
Znamia ( journal) 627
Zoshchenko, Mikhail, satirist 587, 606, 663,
674, 725
Zvezda ( journal) 663
842
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Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
Plate 1. The last emperor of Russia, Nicholas II (1894–1917), dressed in seventeenth-
century national costume, 1903.
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
Plate 2. Jean Cocteau. Poster for the 1911 Ballets Russes
season showing Nijinsky in costume for Le Spectre de la
Rose, Paris, 1911.
Plate 3. Portrait of Metropolitan Sergei. Detail
from a painting by Pavel Korin, Bygone Russia,in
P. Korin’s house-museum, Moscow.
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
Plate 4. Demonstration of soldiers’ wives demanding an increase in the welfare payments
to the families of soldiers, ‘the defenders of freedom and the people’s peace’, 1917.
Plate 5. The three comrades: Trotsky, Lenin, Kamenev, May 1920.