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Baptist churches 81

Baranskaia, Natalia, ‘A Week Like Any Other’

(story) 457

Barber, Benjamin R. 26

Barghoorn, Frederick 42

Barnaul, Siberia

lack of facilities 204

population growth 201

barter

in post-Soviet economy 372, 407–8, 435

to compensate for shortages 198, 390

see also blat

Basaev, Shamil, Chechen commander,

invasion of Dagestan 376, 520

Bashkiria 393

Basmachestvo movement 497

Bauer, Evgenii 55, 583

Bauman, Karl 558

Bauman, K.Ia. 420

Bauman, Zygmunt 59

Beatty, Bessie, San Francisco Bulletin 8

Bednyi, Demian, libretto to Ancient Heroes 598

Belaev, Vasilii, Mannerheim Line 601

Belarus (from 1991) 528–9

and Commonwealth of Independent States

516

as competitive authoritarian regime 354

independence (1991) 547

post-Soviet transition 548

relations with Russian Federation 703–4

see also Belorussia

Belarusian Peasant and Workers’ Union 534

Belarusian Popular Front (1988–9) 543

Belarusian Socialist Soviet 535

Belgium, German invasion 657

Belorussia

and 1990 elections 546

Belarusianisation policy of Soviet Union

536

ceded by treaty of Brest-Litovsk 136,

528

cultural revival (from 1890s) 528

dissent 542

First World War 95, 528

German occupation 528, 538

independence 517

national education 499, 510

nationalism in 102, 150, 528, 543

relationship to RSFSR 174

reuniﬁcation (1939) 537

western (within Poland) 533–4

see also Belarus (from 1991)

Belovezhskaya Accord (1991) 357

Belyi, Andrei 82

Petersburg (novel) 580

Benua (Benois), Aleksandr 581

World of Art movement 81

Berezovsky, Boris 371

Berggolts, Ol’ga 610

Beria, Lavrentii 242, 261, 263

and deportations 503

fall and execution (1953) 274–5, 276, 509,

725–7

and foreign policy 283

and formation of GKO 255, 257

head of NKVD 215, 240, 252

membership of Politburo 252

and Molotov 259

and scientists 564

and succession to Stalin 508

Berkl

¯

avs, Eduards, Latvia 540, 541

Berlin, Red Army entry into (1945) 504

Berlin, Isaiah (1909–97) 36

Berlin Ultimatum, by Khrushchev

(1958) 286–7, 296

Berlin wall

construction of 287

demolition 341

Berliner, Joseph (1921–2001) 31

Berlinguer, Enrico 683

Bernes, Mark, singer 602

Bessarabia (Eastern Romania) 505, 531

Soviet occupation (1940) 222, 658

see also Moldavia (Moldova from 1991)

Bichevskaia, Zhanna, singer 626

Birmingham, University of, Centre for

Russian and East European Studies 36

Birobidzhan, Jewish Autonomous Region

507

Bitov, Andrei 615, 628

Black Book of Communism 63

black markets 198, 399

and 1990s inﬂation 435

exploitative 310

peasants’ 418

tolerated under Brezhnev 302–3

see also commodities

Blanter, Matvei, composer 597

blat (informal distribution practices) 400, 403

see also barter

Blok, Aleksandr, modernist 580, 587

The Field of Kulikovo 588

Retribution 588

The Twelve (poem) 580

Bobrinskii, Georgii, military governor of

L’viv 99

796

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Bogdanov, Aleksandr

and ‘God-Building’ 82

and Proletkul’t 585

Bohlen, Charles ‘Chip’, American diplomat 13

Bolshevik government (dictatorship)

(1917–22) 135–9, 166–7

alienation of peasants 159–60

attempts to establish ‘peaceful

reconstruction’ 165

authoritarianism of 139

Central Control Commission 245, 248

collegial nature of 245

and corruption 154–5

Council of People’s Commissars (October

1917) (Sovnarkom) 137

cultural policies 155–7, 583–5

economic policy see War Communism

effect of power on concept of class 714–16

Land decree 136–7

and Orthodox Church 148

and Party-State 151–5, 166

peace decree 135–6

policies towards women 472–7

political control over Academy of Sciences

556–7

popular revolts against 147–8

relations with borderlands and

nationalities 148–51, 497–8

relations with workers 163–6

and scientiﬁc education 553–4

socialist opposition to 147

suppression of women’s movement 472

Zhenotdel (Women’s Bureau) 474–5

see also Communist party; War

Communism

Bolsheviks 68, 125

appeal of Stalin’s group to rank and ﬁle 247

attempts to inspire revolution among allies

636–43

and class narrative 713–18

concerns about NEP 180–1

economic ambitions 383

as embodiment of revolutionary Social

Democracy 707, 713, 714

and February Revolution 114, 123, 125

as heirs of intelligentsia tradition 579

Kerensky’s suppression of (July 1917) 126

and notion of ‘capitalist encirclement’ 113

opposition to war 104, 138

peasants’ support for 417

renamed Communists (1918) 143

seizure of power 133–5

support for self-determination 149

urban base of 497

use of terror in civil war 145–6

view of peasants 160–1, 417, 718, 719

war administration (1917–18) 110–11

workers’ support for 84, 121, 129

see also Bolshevik government

(dictatorship); Bolshevism

Bolshevisation 644

Bolshevism

aspirations and failures of 44–5

marginalisation of women 472

Western views of 8–9, 33–7

Bol’shoi theatre, Moscow 581, 603

Bondarchuk, Sergei, Fate of a Man 281,

614

Bondarev, Iurii 622

border guard forces 215

Bordiga, Amadeo, Italian communist 644

Bosyi, D. F., machine operator 455

Bourdieu, Pierre 57

‘bourgeois specialists’ 459

Stalin’s attack on 189, 451, 460

bourgeoisie

fear of 714

and Social Democracy 710

tolerated under NEP 719–20

see also middle classes

‘brain-washing’ 24

Brandt, Willy, West German chancellor 306

Brazauskas, Algirdas-Mikolas, Lithuania 346

Brest-Litovsk, fall of 97

Brest-Litovsk, Peace of 9, 110, 111, 636

as compromise of principles 640

Russian territorial losses 136, 144, 527

‘Brethren’ (brattsy) movement 81

‘Brezhnev Doctrine’ (orthodoxy) 300

Brezhnev, Galina (daughter), corruption

scandals 314

Brezhnev, Leonid 290, 305–6

control over Politburo 300–1

and cultural stagnation (zastoi) 298–9,

617–29

death 314, 316

decline of administration 308–15

economy 302–3, 310, 403–4

and family law reforms 488–90

foreign policy and d

´

etente 305–8

historiography 292–5

ill health 309, 312, 314

and invasion of Afghanistan 311–12

My Little Homeland memoir 619

and path to communism 729

Peace Programme (1969) 306

797

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Brezhnev, Leonid (cont.)

personality cult 309, 314

and rejection of Khrushchevism 296–300

repression under 618, 682

and response to Polish Solidarity

movement 312–13

and science 571

social contract 300–5, 310

stability under 294

‘trust in cadres’ policy 297, 298, 302, 305,

309, 511

visit to USA 307

Brodsky, Joseph, trial 617

Brotherhood of Nations, concept of 500, 501,

505, 510, 512

Baltic states’ exclusion from 506

Broun, Heywood 18

Brown, Archie 42

Brumberg, Abraham 21, 374

Brusilov, General Aleksei, 1916 offensive 97

Bryant, Louise, radical 8

Brzezinski, Zbigniew

deﬁnition of totalitarianism 22, 27, 31, 52, 55

as US national security adviser 54

Budennyi, Simeon 257

Buford, USS (the ‘Red Ark’) 9

Bukhara, captured by Bolsheviks 151

Bukharin, Nikolai 144, 191, 246, 719

and Academy of Sciences 556

and Comintern 645

and London science conference 561

and prospect of Italian revolution 638

Road to Socialism 706

and Stalin 185, 186

support for NEP 185–7, 194, 247, 421

trial (1938) 723

view of class revolution 716, 720

Bukovina, Northern, Soviet invasion 658

Bukovina province, Ukraine 530

to Romania 530, 534

Bulgakov, Mikhail 620

Master and Margarita 598

Bulganin, Nikolai 242, 263

as deputy to Stalin 265

and Khrushchev 277, 285

and Politburo 260

and Suez 285

Bullitt, William, US ambassador to USSR 13

Bunin, Ivan 620

‘Bureau for Sociopolitical Enlightenment’

(Provisional Government) 111

bureaucracy

as basis of Stalinist state 17, 51

in Communist systems 41

for Five-Year Plan 395

Burliuk, David (and others), A Slap in the Face

of Public Taste 588

Burma, Khrushchev’s visit 285, 681

Bush, George, US President 341

and Gorbachev 700

Bykov, Vasilii 622

capitalism

critique of 12, 14

and modernity 29, 58

optimism about 6

see also socialism; West, the

Carnegie Corporation 22

Carpatho-Ukraine, Republic of (1939) 535

Carr, E.H. (1892–1982), historian 22, 33–4, 36

Carter, Jimmy, US President 54, 312

cartoons, anti-German 602

Castro, Fidel 271, 285

casualties

1921–3 famine 148, 166

1932–3 famine 196

civil war 166, 475

during deportations 502

First World War 416

German in Second World War 224

Soviet civilian deaths under German

occupation 226

Soviet deaths in Second World War 225–7

see also death rate

Catholic Church

in Lithuania 541

in Poland 312, 686

Caucasus see Armenia; Azerbaijan; Georgia;

Transcaucasia

Caucasus, North

ethnic conﬂict in 503

see also Chechnya; Dagestan

Ceaus¸escu, Nicolae 341

censorship 208–9

abolished (1990) 632

inconsistencies 620

relaxation of (pre-revolution) 581

relaxation under Khrushchev 612

Second World War 603

State Security (MGB) control over 668

under Brezhnev 618

under martial law (First World War) 99

censuses

1926–37 200

1937 203

Russia (2002) 409

798

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Central Asia

anti-European uprisings (1916) 151

and civil war 497

ﬁlm-making 625

industrialisation 401

labour camps 202

nationalisms in 343

policies towards women 56, 174

post-independence states 518

Soviet Union as vanguard in 675, 681

Central Committee

and 1928 ‘emergency measures’ 247

ageing (1970s) 309

economic departments abolished (1988) 329

expansion under Brezhnev 301, 618

Gorbachev and 697

Central Committee International

Department (CCID) 683, 695

relations with MFA 685–7

Central Control Commission 245, 248

see also State Control Commission

Central Executive Committee of the Soviets

(VTsIK) 126, 246

and All-Russian Soviet of Peasant Deputies

137

Lenin and 134

Central Industrial region

peasant out-migration 443

workers’ ‘symbiosis’ with village life 444

Chadaev, Iakov 254

Chaianov, Aleksandr Vasilevich

(1888–c.1938) 421

Chaliapin, Fedor 582

Chamberlain, Neville, British prime

minister 655, 657

Chamberlin, William Henry (1897–1969),

Christian Science Monitor

correspondent 15

Chambers, Whittaker 35

Chancellery for Civilian Administration 98

Chapaev (ﬁlm) 208, 587, 597

Chardynin, Piotr 583

charivari (vozhdenie) rituals 86

Chase, Stuart, economist 14

Chechens

allowed to return 282

deportations of 502, 503

to Central Asia 202, 226, 401

Chechnya 346, 519

declaration of secession (1992–4) 364–6

invasion (1999) 376–7, 378, 520

Putin’s policy on 378

Russian invasion (1994–6) 365, 519–20

Cheka, terror commission 146, 214

Cheliabinsk, Siberia, population growth 201

Cheremukhin, N. A., armed repression in

Saratov province (1919) 161

Cherenkov, P. A., physicist 559

Chernenko, Konstantin 309, 688

as General Secretary 317–19

and succession to Brezhnev 314

Cherniaev, Anatolii, foreign policy adviser to

Gorbachev 338, 347

Chernobyl’ nuclear disaster (1986) 323, 542,

574–5

Chernomyrdin, Viktor 359, 368

as prime minister 371, 374

Chernov, Viktor

centrist SR leader 124

as chair of Constituent Assembly 138

Chiang Kai-shek, Chinese nationalist 642, 643,

652, 655

captured 653–4

USSR support for 667

Chicago, University of 22

Chicherin, Georgii, commissar for foreign

affairs 640, 646

child support laws 209

childcare

centres 480, 488, 489, 492

collective 172, 180

mothers’ role in 209

children, destitute and orphaned 475

from mass deportations 203

police control over 214

street 172

from Volga famine 172

China 641–3

arms supplies to 654

border clashes (1969) 306, 691

civil war (1945–7) 667

Communist party (CCP) 652

destruction of communist movement

(1927) 199, 246, 643

and end of Cold War 698

Hundred Flowers campaign 681

identity relations with 688–90, 691

Khrushchev and 284, 680–1

market reforms 698

and Stalin 274, 667, 671–2

Stalinist model 682, 689

as surrogate vanguard 672, 690

treaty of alliance (1950) 672

and Vietnam 673

war with Japan 653

Chior, Pavel, Moldova 537

799

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chrezvychaishchina (government based on

mass terror) 153

Chubais, Anatolii 361, 369, 370

Chubar, Vlas 249, 251

Chukhrai, Grigorii

Ballad of a Soldier 281, 614

The Forty-ﬁrst 614

Churbanov, Yuri 314

church

separation from state 156

see also Orthodox Church

Churchill, Winston 9, 657

CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) 21

funding for CENIS 30

cinema see ﬁlm industry; ﬁlms

Cinematographers’ Union 630

cities

‘closed’ 241, 303, 401

nuclear 572

‘open’ 303

science 572

see also towns and urban areas

civic education 11, 24

civil rights, as goal of liberals 73

civil society

changes in pre-revolutionary Russia

77–80

emergence under Khrushchev 291

and parastatal organisation in First World

War 105–7

repression of 167

civil war (1918–22) 143–51, 497

de-urbanisation 163, 167, 170

devastation of 166–7

effect on development of Bolshevik

party-state 153, 167

historiography 140–2

labour discipline 449

loss of industrial workers 445–6

and nationalities 496

origins of 143

role of international intervention 112, 145,

638

see also War Communism

class

as basis of privileges and repression 211

Bolshevik application to transformation of

countryside 159, 160, 418, 718–22

in Bolshevik ideology 157, 164,

713–18

and fear of bourgeoisie 714

and food rationing 158

and identity 129

Marxist narrative of 706–7

and nationalism 131

and revolutionary consciousness 48, 49

and victory of socialism 205, 211, 214,

723

women and 482

see also class leadership; proletariat;

workers

class conﬂict 159, 160, 418

exacerbated (1917) 128–30

and Stalin’s attack on kulaks and Nepmen

189, 195, 721–2

class consciousness

development of 444

of industrial workers (1917) 121, 451

class leadership

Bolshevik concept of 720

Khrushchev’s redeﬁnition of 728

and ‘Who-Whom?’ (kto-kogo) scenario

718–19, 720, 721–2

Clem, Ralph S., The Soviet West 522

coal production 194, 386

coalminers

militancy (1990s) 464–5

strike (1989) 463

coercion

Bolshevik justiﬁcation of 158, 159, 720

Gorbachev’s refusal to use 349

Stalin’s use of 243

to force peasants to sell grain (1928) 188

see also repression; violence, state

Cohen, Stephen F. 50

Cold War 682–91

and collapse of USSR 61–2

and concept of totalitarianism 23

end of 336–42, 697

factors in end of 336–7

Khrushchev’s attempts to reduce tensions

285

professional Sovietology 20–2

and revisionist historiography 43–4

and US policy 43

and Western assumption of Soviet

expansionist ambitions 20–1, 25

see also d

´

etente; foreign policy

collective farms (kolkhozy) 195, 303, 398, 420

less formal structure 430

low productivity of 302

model 179, 186

and privatisations 435

collectivisation 192, 194–8, 398–400, 420–6,

721

concession on private plots 424

800

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costs of 197

extent of 196

and nationalities 501, 539

relaxation of rules 196

social effects of 197, 446

women’s resistance to 423–4, 477–9

see also agriculture

Columbia University, Russian Institute 21, 22

COMECON (Council for Mutual Economic

Assistance) trade bloc 306, 403

comedy

cartoons 602

estrada (revue) 626

Cominform (1947) 666, 669

abolition (1956) 675

and Tito 670

Comintern (Communist International)

and China 653

and communism in China 643

move to Left 644–5

relations with Narkomindel 639–40

relationship to Communist Party 644

role and purpose of 636–7

Sixth Congress (1928) 645

Commissariat of Enlightenment

(Narkompros) 584, 589

and education under Bolsheviks 586

Commissariat of Food Supply

(Narkomprod) 158

Commissariat for Foreign Affairs

(Narkomindel), relations with

Comintern 639–40

Commissariat of Local Affairs 152

Commissariat of Nationalities

(Narkomnats) 149, 151

Committee to Save the Constituent Assembly

(Komuch), in Samara 144

commodities

consumer goods 456, 488, 489

shortages 198, 249, 302, 310, 400, 455

stores for Soviet elite 302–4

subsidised 302

see also black markets

Commonwealth of Independent States 349,

406, 516, 703–4

commune (obshchina) organisation (in

villages) 86, 389, 412–13

reforms (1906) 88, 388, 415–16

return to 416, 417

‘commune state’, Lenin’s vision of 134

communications 192

see also information; media

communism

criticism of (under Gorbachev) 325

decline of 379

and social democracy 694

Western interpretations of Soviet 33–7

Communist Academy 554, 556

Communist International see Comintern

communist parties

and change of Comintern strategy 640, 645

in decolonising countries 690

emergence from Western Social

Democracy 8, 706

and world research movement 687

Communist Party

banned (1991) 356

and Comintern 637, 644

control over NKVD and police 215

‘Cultural Revolution’ 593–4

declining support for 199

economic intervention 391

fear of peasant autonomy 420

hierarchical control within 297, 327

intolerance of rival socialists 144, 165

Khrushchev’s division into agriculture and

industry branches 279, 280, 288

loss of monopoly power 328, 344

membership of 153–4

merger with RCs (1920) 144

Nineteenth Party Conference (1988) 321,

325, 326, 340–1

patronage in 310

perception of threats 213–14, 258

and problem of accounting for Stalinism

725–7

proportion of nationalities in 176

purges (1920–1) 154

and resistance to break-up of Union 347–8

Russian national domination of 211

see also Central Committee; Communist

Party Congresses; Communist Party

of the Russian Federation; Politburo;

Stalinism

Communist Party (Bolshevik) of Ukraine

(CP(b)U) 535

Communist Party Congresses

Eighth (1919) 152

Tenth (1921) 168

Eleventh (1922) 181

Twelfth (1923) 182

Seventeenth (1934) 205, 650

Eighteenth (1939) 252, 266

Nineteenth (1951) 263

Twentieth (1956) 268–9

Twenty-Second (1961) 281, 284, 728

801

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Communist Party Congresses (cont.)

Twenty-Third (1966) 298

Twenty-Fourth (1971) 301

Twenty-Fifth (1976) 308

Twenty-Sixth (1981) 314, 321

Twenty-Seventh (1986) 321

Twenty-Eighth (last) (1990) 330

Communist Party of the Russian

Federation 366, 367, 702

and premiership of Primakov 375, 377

revival of 368

Communist Youth League (Komsomol) 455,

593

women’s section 174

computers, technological lag in 572

‘comrade’, as form of address 129

Congo, Khrushchev and 285

Congress of People’s Deputies 327, 344

communists within 362

elections (1989) 327–8, 544

and opposition to economic reforms 359,

360, 361, 362

Yeltsin and 356, 361–3

Conquest, Robert 39–40, 52, 500

conscription

First World War 95

Second World War 238

Constituent Assembly 109, 137

closure of 139, 144

elections 122, 146

Constitutional Democratic Party see Kadets

consumer culture

among peasants 88

development of 79, 400, 403, 468

in early years of NEP 171

women and 469

contraception 476, 481, 489

‘convergence thesis’ 20, 32

Coolidge, Archibald Cary (1866–1928),

historian 10

co-operative farms (kolhozy) 195, 303

co-operatives

co-optation of (1919) 158

Law on (1988) 333

rural 178, 186, 389

corporal punishment, abolished (1904)

88

corruption 153

Bolshevik government and 154–5

in state economy 199

under Brezhnev 310, 314

in Yeltsin’s economic reforms 371

Cossacks, in White Army 143

Council of Defence (Bolsheviks’) 111

Council of Europe 704

Council of Ministers (Sovmin) 260–1

Buro of the Presidium 263

Council of People’s Commissars (October

1917) (Sovnarkom) 137

armed opposition to 143

Stalin as head of 240

Council for Security and Cooperation in

Europe (CSCE) 704

Counts, George (1889–1974) 14

The Country of the Blind (with Lodge) 24

Crimea, transferred to Ukraine 283, 509

Crimean Tatars

allowed to return 282, 502

demonstration in Moscow (1987) 345

deported to Central Asia 202, 401, 502

Jadidist 151

petition (1968) 512

Cripps, Sir Stafford 658, 660–1

Crossman, Richard, (ed.) The God that Failed

35

Cuba

Bay of Pigs (1961) 287

Khrushchev and 285

military support for Angola 308

missile crisis (1962) 287–8, 296

‘cultural turn’ 57

culture

adaptations 590

amateur arts 599–600

American inﬂuence (1920s) 171, 590

artists’ trade unions 594, 596, 600

Bolshevik policies on 155–7, 583–5

and capitalist ‘decadence’ 187

counter-culture 626–7

dominance of Russian 211, 304, 495

European inﬂuence on 281, 579, 590

glasnost’and629–34

historical themes 613–14, 622

individualism and private morality 615

intelligentsia and 579–80

Khrushchev’s policies on 280–2, 675

kolkhoz prose, rural sentimental 609, 613

mass entertainment 79

and morality 206–10, 607

national 210

political critics 596

popular 582–3, 596, 603–4, 609

post-war repression 605–10, 682

proletarian 592–4

Proletkul’t 155, 585

reversal of thaw (under Brezhnev) 298–9

802

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science as alien to 549

and Second World War 600–3

socialist realism 207–8, 594–600

stagnation (1967–85)(zastoi) 617–29

Stalinist xenophobia 211, 605–10

state control over 207, 208–9, 604, 612

state support for 592–3

thaw (1953–67) 281, 288–9, 610–17, 675,

682

see also art; ﬁlms; literature; music;

propaganda; theatre

currency

reforms 170, 427

ruble no longer convertible (1926) 393

stabilisation 391

Custine, Marquis de 7

cybernetics 570

Czechoslovak legionnaires 144

Czechoslovakia

crisis (1938) 219, 654

federal form of 343

and Hungarian uprising 679

relations with USSR 669

‘special path to socialism’ 670, 671

suppression of 1968 ‘Prague Spring’ 41,

299–300, 306

Transcarpathian Ukrainians in 530, 534–5

dachas, spread of ownership of 402

Dagestan 520

Chechen invasion (1999) 376, 520

Dalian 667

Dallin, Alexander (1924–2000) 33

Dan, Fedor 171

dance halls 599

Daniel’, Iulii 298

trial 617, 682

Daniels, Robert Vincent 30, 38

Daud, Mohammed, Afghanistan 311, 691

Davies, Joseph E., US ambassador to USSR 18

Mission to Moscow 19

Davies, R.W. 34, 36

Davies, Sarah 54

Davis, Jerome, sociologist 12

de-Stalinisation 276–7, 614, 725–7

and Eastern Europe 677

end of 298

of ‘woman question’ 485–90

de-urbanisation, civil war 163, 167, 170

Dean, Vera Micheles 13

death penalty

executions under Stolypin 69

Kerensky’s restoration of 132

death rate 170

among urban industrial workers 83

Deborin, A. M., dialectician 555, 557

‘decadence’, in pre-revolutionary culture 79

defeatism, punishment of 231

defence industry 193

concentration of scientiﬁc research on

572–3, 576

Five-Year Plan 397

post-war 241–2, 300, 308, 337

wartime production 234, 238

see also nuclear weapons

defencism

ideology of 105

revolutionary 108, 110

Demichev, Petr 288

democracy

and aims of February Revolution 119–20

and Bolshevik coup 138, 139

in former Soviet states 354

Gorbachev’s interest in 320–1

in industry 163

as norm of modernisation 29

prospects for 19, 354, 379–80

Putin and 379, 380

democratic centralism, end of 328

Democratic Centralists (DC) 152

Democratic Choice of Russia party 368

Democratic Conference (14–19 September

1917) 133

Democratic Russia movement 330

demography

effect of collectivisation on 400–1

effect of economic policies on 385–6

effect of post-Soviet economy on 408–9

see also population

Deng Xiaoping 691

market reforms 698

Denikin, General Anton, commander of

Whites 112, 146, 496

Denmark, German invasion 657

Department of Propaganda 636

deportations

during Second World War 502–3

of kulaks and peasants 195, 201, 203, 400–1

of nationalities and ‘socially dangerous’

elements 202, 212, 401, 427, 502–3

and returns under Khrushchev 282, 502

social disruption and disorder resulting

from 203–5

of suspected collaborators 239

war deaths as result of 226

from western republics 538

803

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desertions

on Eastern Front 231

imperial army 97, 125

Red Army 160

d

´

etente 54, 305–8

Brezhnev’s vision of 305–7

decline of 307

and Third World 307–8

see also Cold War

Deutscher, Isaac (1907–67) 33, 35–6

Deutscher, Tamara 34

development

and democracy 29

and post-colonialism 29

Stalinism as stage in 50

Dewey, John 14, 15, 19

American Committee for the Defense of

Leon Trotsky 17

Diagilev, Sergei 582

dictatorship of the proletariat 52

difference

and identity relations with China 688–90

limits of (Hungary) 678

Stalinist fear of 666, 667

toleration of (1953–6) 673–5

see also Soviet identity

Dimitrov, Georgii, Comintern 650, 657,

686

disease 455

among urban industrial workers 83

dissidents

as accomplices in Western plots against

socialism 667–8

Eastern Europe 307

repression of 298, 319, 682

and science 573–4

western republics of USSR 522, 540–2

district (uezd) committees, formed after

February Revolution 117

divorce

Bolshevik laws on 173, 473, 476

rates 489, 492

re-liberalisation (1950s) 486

reversal of liberalisation 209, 481, 484

Djilas, Miloslav 667

Dnieprostroi, hydroelectric dam at 193

Dniester Republic 546, 548

Dobb, Maurice (1900–76) 33

Dobrynin, Anatolii 338, 693

as ambassador in Washington 686

as CCID secretary 695, 697

Doctors’ Plot (1952–3) 264, 267, 274, 508, 668

public declaration of error 674

Dolmatovskii, Evgenii 598

Donbass coalﬁelds 386

Dostoevsky, Fedor 634

Dotsenko, Viktor 634

Douglas, Paul, labour economist 13

Dovzhenko, Aleksandr 596, 625

Earth 398

Liberation 601

Dreiser, Theodore, novelist 12, 18

Druzhba narodov (journal) 622

‘dual power’ 115, 116

Dub

ˇ

cek, Alexander, Czechoslovakia 299

Duclos, Jacques, French communist 657

Dudayev, General Johkar 519–20

declaration of Chechnya’s independence

364, 365

Dudintsev, Vladimir, Not by Bread Alone 281,

727–8

Dunaevskii, Isaak, composer 597

Durant, Will, historian 14

Duranty, Walter, New York Times

correspondent 12

Durkheim, Emile 29

Dzerzhinsky, Feliks

head of Cheka 146

statue destroyed (1991) 352

Dziuba, Ivan, Ukrainian dissident 541

Eastern Europe (Soviet bloc)

calls for economic reform 299–300

COMECON trade bloc 306, 403

demands for independence 337, 342

economic weakness 308

Gorbachev’s view of 336, 340, 697–8

and Helsinki Accords (1975) 307

independence (1989) 341

institutions 668

purges 671

relations with Moscow 664–5, 669, 675,

676

Soviet control over 665–6

state autonomy in 26, 41, 539

Eastman, Max, journalist 16, 19

L’Echo de Paris, on Bolsheviks 9

economic reform (from 1987)

500-day Plan (1990) 334–5, 405

attempts at macroeconomic stabilisation

359–61

effect on republics 514

failure of 331–5, 702

Gorbachev’s policies 321, 333–4, 404–5

insider privatisations 333, 360

Law on Co-operatives (1988) 333, 335

804

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Law on Individual Economic Activity

(1986) 333

Law on the State Enterprise (1987) 333, 404,

463

monetary reforms 360

moves away from central planning (late

1980s) 333–4, 384

perestroika 404–6, 463–4

privatisation of large state enterprises 360–1

prospects for (1991) 354

prospects for (1996) 370

threat by Primakov to reverse 375

uskorenie (acceleration) under Gorbachev

320, 334, 404, 462

Yeltsin’s move to market economy 358

see also economy, post-Soviet

economics, and mathematics 570

economy 383–6

assessment of Soviet experiments 409–10

and barriers to technological innovation

567

central planning 169–70, 198, 279, 300, 383

commodity shortages 198, 249

crisis of 1917 128

decentralisation experiment (under

Kosygin) 299

delusional information about 395–6, 684

economic councils (sovnarkhozy) 158, 279

effect of Second World War on 227, 233–4,

241, 402

failure to revive (1970s) 308, 405

inter-war (self-contained) 219–21

Khrushchev’s policies 277–83, 289, 402–3

long-term instability 384

political intervention in 157, 385

post-Stalinist 402–4

post-war concentration on defence 241–2

prescriptive visions of 409

private trading 169, 180, 187, 198

and pursuit of modernisation 384–5

stagnation (1970s–1980s) 308, 310, 319, 383

state markets 198

tsarist 157, 386

under Brezhnev 302–3, 403–4

War Communism 147, 157–63, 164, 390–1

see also collectivisation; economic reform

(from 1987); economy, post-Soviet;

Five-Year Plans; industry; New

Economic Policy (NEP)

economy, post-Soviet 406–9

assessment of transition 406–7

attempts at stabilisation 372–4

August 1998 crisis 371–4

bankruptcy of (1991) 358, 366

budget deﬁcits 372

effect of break-up of Soviet Union on

supplies 408

inﬂation 372

international debt 372, 374

loans-for-shares schemes 371, 407

recovery (1999) 379

short-term bonds (GKOs) 373–4

Eden, Anthony, UK prime minister 285

edinolichniki (private peasant farms), survival

of 196, 206

edinonachalie (one-man management) 459,

460

education

Bolshevik 586

co-education 473, 484

curriculum reform 586

expansion of 468

higher, for women 479, 484

Khrushchev’s reforms 510–11

in national languages 499, 536

rural schooling 88, 428, 431

rural women 489

Stalinist expansion of 206–7, 400

vocational training 400, 456

see also literacy; universities

Eﬁmov, Boris, cartoonist 602

Egorov, Iurii, They Were the First 614

Egorov, M.A. 504

Egypt 681

Khrushchev’s visit 285

Soviet support for (1973) 307

Ehrenburg, Ilya

novelist 602, 610

The Thaw 281, 674

Eikhe, Robert Indrikovich 251

Eisenhower, Dwight D., US president 286–7

Eisenstein, Sergei, ﬁlm-maker 208, 606

Aleksandr Nevsky 601

Battleship Potemkin 592

Ivan Groznyi 608

and Richard Wagner’s Die Walk

¨

ure 601

Strike 592

Ekaterinburg see Sverdlovsk

El Salvador 698

elections

parliamentary (1999) 377

and popular politics 330

referendum on Federation constitution

364, 366

regional (postponed 1991) 358

Russian Federation (1993–6) 366–71

805

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