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kto-kogo (Who-Whom?) scenario of class
leadership 718–19, 720
Stalin’s interpretation of 721–2
Kuchma, Leonid, president of Ukraine 547
Kuibyshev, Valerian, chair of Central Control
Commission 245, 452
Kukryniksy, cartoonists 602
Kulakov, Fedor 301, 310
kulaks (peasant elite) 179, 394, 421
collectivisation as campaign against 195–6,
201, 203
de-kulakisation 213, 398, 400, 721–2
demonisation of 421–2
Stalin’s view of 189, 194, 419
Kuleshov, Lev, Adventures of Mr West...
(film) 591
Kulik, Grigorii Ivanovich 257
Kun, B
´
ela, Hungarian revolutionary 145,
651
Kunaev, Dinmukhamed, Kazakhstan 301, 305,
344
dismissed 513
Kuraev, Mikhail 633
Kurapaty forest, Belarus, graves of Stalinist
victims 543
Kurchatov, I.V., nuclear project 562
Kursk, German offensive (1943) 223
Kuzbass mining district 464
Kuznetsov, A. A., and Leningrad Affair 261,
262
Kuznetsstroi 193
Kvirikadze, Irakli, The Swimmer 620
Kyrgyz (Kirgiz) peoples
ethnic conflict in First World War 103
and Uzbeks 516
Kyrgyzstan 354
and Commonwealth of Independent States
516
labour
and employment security 301–2, 308
forced 193, 203, 400, 401, 402
gendered division 443, 451, 478, 479
militarisation of 158, 454
peasant view of 412, 436
prisoner-of-war 456
shortages (Second World War) 402, 454
slave 671
work force reductions 445–6, 466
see also workers
labour camps 202, 274, 400
Second World War deaths in 226
see also Gulag penal colonies
labour discipline 448–50, 451
reforms under Khrushchev 456–7
labour history 45, 47–9
labour legislation
labour books (workers’ records) 454
restrictions on job mobility 402
on working conditions 83
labour migration
under Stalinism 446–7
women and 122
labour productivity 392, 404
absenteeism 310
and management 454
pre-Revolution 448
production collectives 453
Second World War 455
socialist competition strategy 452–3
Stakhanovism 396, 453–4
under Brezhnev 457–8
under Five-Year Plan 396–7
under Khrushchev 456–7
under NEP 450
Land Code (1922) 419
Land decree (October 1917) 136–7
land ownership
among peasants 87
confiscations (1917–18) 136–7
labour and rights to 412, 436
noble, decline in 87
peasant purchases of gentry lands 416
and privatisation of collectives 435, 436–7,
438–9
land reform
demand for (1917) 127
illegal seizures by peasants (1917) 127–8
post-Soviet experiments 434
tsarist experiments 388–90
Land Statute (1919) 418, 477
Landau, L. D. 559, 561, 564
Landsbergis, Vytautas, president of
Lithuania 545
language, Communist ideological 156,
164
languages
Estonian 524
and formalisation of minority cultures 210
Hebrew and Yiddish 91
and Khrushchev’s reforms 510–11
Latvian 526
minority 89, 177, 508, 510
and nationalism 544
Russian made compulsory in schools 499
Ukrainian 529
816
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Lansing, Robert, US secretary of state 8
Lapidus, Gail 55
Larin, Iurii 717
Larionov, Mikhail 582, 616
Lasch, Christopher 6
Lassalle, Ferdinand, and modern
socialism 709
Latin America 690
Latvia 495, 526–7
authoritarian regime (1934) 533
Bolshevism in 526–7
deportations (1940s) 505–6
dissidents 541
economy 532
emigration (pre-First World War) 387
First World War 95, 526
incorporated in USSR 505
inter-war independence 150, 527
liberal democracy 354, 518
nationalism 131, 345, 510, 543, 545
post-Soviet independence 346
Russians in 506, 547
str
¯
elnieki infantry 526
Latvian Social Democratic Workers’
Party 526
Laue, Theodore von (1916–2000) 33
law see Fundamental Laws
Law on Co-operatives (1988) 333, 335
Law on Individual Economic Activity
(1986) 333
law, rule of 73
Law on the State Enterprise (1987) 333,
404
League of Foreign Peoples of Russia 102
League of Nations 649
Lebed’, General Aleksandr 520
Lebedev-Kumach, Vasilii, lyricist 597, 602
Lee, Andrea 15
legitimacy, laws on 473, 484
Leites, Nathan 23
Lemberg see L’viv (L’vov)
Lena goldfields (Siberia), strikes 70
Lenin, V. I. 135, 182, 708
and ambition of revolution in Germany
636, 637, 639
April Theses 125
and assassination of royal family 145
attempted assassination of 145
and Baltic states 638
and China 642
and Comintern 637
criticism of (under Gorbachev) 325
illness and death (1924) 182, 183
and industry 446, 459
and interpretation of ‘smash the state’
phrase 715, 716
Marxism of 75
materialism of 580
misgivings about Transcaucasian Republic
175, 498
and nationalities 498
and New Economic Policy (NEP) 168,
181–2, 718
opposition to liberalism and
parliamentarism 124, 137
and party 712
on peasant Green rebellions 161
and prospect of world revolution 112,
638–9
and prospects for socialism 149, 181
realpolitik of 641
return from exile 110, 124
and Stalin 175–6, 184
State and Revolution 134, 152, 715
Testament 183, 184
view of science 552, 553
view of worker–peasant co-operation 178,
418, 720
view of workers 448
What is to be Done? (1902) 75, 712, 713
Lenin All-Union Academy of Agricultural
Sciences 558, 564
Leningrad
German siege of (1941–5) 222, 226, 229
living standards 303
population growth 201
underground cinema movement 627
war deaths 226
Leningrad Affair (1949) 261–3, 266, 674
Leningrad Institute of Physics and
Technology 558
Leningrad (journal) 663
Leninism, relationship to Stalinism 16, 38, 46,
50–1
Leont’ev, Valerii 626
Leroy-Beaulieu, Anatole 7
Lewin, Moshe 33, 36–7, 58
on Stalinism 50, 52
Lewis, Sinclair 12
Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR)
liberals
‘banquet campaign’ (1904) 68
political parties 72–3
and traditions of intelligentsia 72
Liberation of Labour movement 711
Liberman, Evsei, economist 289
817
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liberties
political 709, 711, 712
under Gorbachev 322–5
see also human rights
liberty, symbols of (1917) 119
libraries, removal of foreign books
607
life expectancy 408
Ligachev, Egor 317, 318, 320, 321, 326
and anti-alcohol campaign 332
criticism of reforms 326
Likhachev, Dmitrii, Academician 328
linguistics 565
Lippmann, Walter 9, 20
Lipset, Seymour Martin, The Political Man 29
literacy 192, 206
among peasants 88, 180
among urban workers 83
in Estonia and Latvia 524
and nationalism 343
and popular culture 77, 583
rural women 429
spread of 78, 400
Ukraine 536
literary salons 581
literature
bleakness of modern 633–4
bowdlerised 607
chernukha 634
and glasnost’ 632–3
Jewish 91
kolkhoz prose 613
Muslim 92
‘no conflict drama’ 609
no longer equated with culture 634–5
popular 77, 79, 88, 582, 590
popular crime stories 583, 627, 634
popular fiction 627, 633, 634–5
production novel (socialist realist) 595
proletarianisation of 593
publication of previously forbidden
324
publishing quotas 619
and small-scale reality in 623–4
socialist realism in 595, 596
under Bolsheviks 587–9
see also poetry; writers
Literaturnaia Moskva 281
Lithuania 495, 527–8
authoritarian regime (1926) 532
declaration of independence 545
deportations (1940s) 505–6
dissident movement 541
economy 532
First World War 95, 527
foreign relations 533
Great Diet of Vilnius 527
and Hungarian uprising 679
incorporated in USSR 505
inter-war independence 150
liberal democracy 354, 518
National Popular Front 512
nationalism 345, 543
and Poland 527
post-Soviet independence 346
relations with Germany 533
relations with Poland 533
Revolution of 1905 527
Russians in 506
Sajudis popular front 543
Taryba national assembly 528
Litvinov, Maksim
foreign affairs commissar 646, 655
and post-war world 665
view of Hitler 648, 649
Liu Shaoqi 672, 678
Lobachevskii, N. I., mathematician 550
Lobov, Oleg 519
local government
councils of people’s commissars
(sovnarkomy) 152
liberal goals for 73
organisation after February Revolution
117–19
political power during civil war 152
problems of rural areas 204–5
Lodge, Nucia, The Country of the Blind (with
Counts) 24
Lominadze, Vissarion 249
London, history of science conference
(1931) 561
London, University of, School of Slavonic
Studies 10
Luckievi
ˇ
c, Ivan and Anton, Belorussian
editors 528
Lukashenka, Aliaksandr, president of
Belarus 548
Lukov, Leonid, A Great Life 606
Lumumba, Patrice, president of Congo 285
Lunacharskii, Anatolii 584, 589, 592
and ‘God-Building’ 82
Lutheranism, and literacy 524
L’viv
L’vov (Lemberg), occupation of 96
as capital of Galicia 529
fall of 97
818
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L’vov, Prince G.E.
chairman of Union of Zemstvos 107
as prime minister of Provisional
Government 107, 116, 123
Lyons, Eugene (1898–1985), journalist 15
Lysenko, T. D. 558–9, 563–4
influence of 563–4, 568
Lysenkoism 569
Maap
¨
aev assembly 525
McCarthy, Senator Joseph 15
McCarthyism 21
MacDonald, Dwight 19
McFaul, Michael 62
Macmillan, Harold, British prime
minister 286
Magnitogorsk, creation of 193, 401
Maiskii, Ivan, Soviet ambassador in
London 658, 665
Makanin, Vladimir 619
Makhno, Nestor, Ukrainian anarchist 149, 497
Maklakov, Nikolai, interior minister (1914) 98
Malenkov, Georgii 242, 252, 261, 263
demotion 675
as deputy to Stalin 265
economic strategy 299
and foreign policy 283
and formation of GKO 255
and Molotov 259
rivalry with Khrushchev 275–6, 277, 679
Malevich, Kazimir 582
Malia, Martin (1924–2004) 39, 46, 271
The Soviet Tragedy 57
Malinovka, Saratov province 161
malnutrition 455
Malraux, Andr
´
e 35
Mamin, Iurii, The Fountain 631
Mamontov family, as arts patrons 581
Manchuria, Japanese invasion 647, 652
Mandel’shtam, Osip 588, 598
Mansurov, Bolat, film-maker 625
Manuilov, Andrei Appolonovich, minister in
Provisional Government 107
Manuil’skii, Dmitrii Zakharevich,
Comintern 657
Mao Zedung 643, 652, 653
‘great leap forward’ 689
relations with Khrushchev 283–4, 680
and Stalin 274
visit to Moscow (1949) 672
visit to Moscow (1957) 283
Marinina, Aleksandra 634
market economy, move towards 358, 360
markets
and agriculture 389
liberalisation 434, 436
private trading under NEP 169, 180, 187
small-scale exchange permitted 205
state 198
see also black markets
Markish, Shimon 612
marriage, laws on 468
Marriage, the Family and Guardianship Code
(1918) 173
Marshall, George, US secretary of state 666
Marshall Plan (European Recovery
Programme) 665, 666
martial law (1914) 97–100
expulsion of enemy aliens 99
occupation policy 99
and political control over civilian
population 99
in provinces (1917) 128
Martov, Iulii (Tsederbaum) L., Marxism of 74
internationalist Menshevik 123
Martyrology of Belarus Association 543
Marx, Karl
criticism of (under Gorbachev) 325
and narrative of class 706
Marxism
and class narrative 706–7
comparison with fascism 24–5
and dialectical materialism 555, 557, 569
and formation of urban proletariat 440
and science 552, 554–5, 557–8, 565–6, 569
as theory of modernisation 29
US view of 20
Marxist Russian Social Democratic Workers’
Party 68, 74
see also Bolsheviks; Mensheviks
Marxists
as political opposition (to 1914) 74–6
and spiritual revivalism 82
view of proletariat 82
Maskhadov, Aslan, president of Chechnya 520
Masliukov, Yurii, economic minister 375
mass politics, replacement of class politics
by 23
Massell, Gregory J. 56
Masurian Lakes, First Battle of 96
Masurian Lakes, Second Battle of 97
materialism
dialectical (Marxism) 555, 557, 569
discontent with and spiritual revivalism
81–2
and political radicalism 580
819
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maternity leave 473, 475, 486
additional 490, 491
for agricultural workers 477
reduced 481
mathematics, and economics 570
Mayakovsky, Vladimir 588
Mead, Margaret 23
Mechnikov, I. I., Nobel prizewinner
550
media see press; television
Medvedev, R. A. 570
Medvedev, Vadim 325, 338
Mehnert, Klaus, German sociologist 13
Mekhlis, Lev Zakharevich 257
Mel’nikov, Leonid, Ukraine 509
Memel (Klaip
˙
eda), annexed by Lithuania 533,
539
Mendeleev, D. I. 550
Mensheviks 68
and Bolshevik Sovnarkom 137
condemnation of Petrograd insurrection
(October 1917) 135
and February uprising 115
opposition to war 104
and political liberties 713
and Provisional Government 116, 123–4
relations with Bolshevik government 144,
147
as trade union leaders 84
Western Social Democrat support for 17
Menuhin, Yehudi and Hepzibah 616
merchants, as arts patrons 581
Merriam, Charles E. (1874–1953) 11
The Making of Citizens 11
Merz, Charles 9
Meshketian Turks, deportation of 502
messianism 82
Metropolis, literary almanac 628
Meyer, Alfred G. (1920–98) 31
Meyerhold, Vsevolod 590, 598
MFA see Ministry of Foreign Affairs
MGB see Ministry of State Security (MGB)
middle classes
as art patrons 579
and February Revolution 122, 131
women 469–70
see also bourgeoisie
midwives 476
migration, internal 389–90
labour 446–7
of peasants to towns (post-emancipation)
443
to urban areas 88, 170, 303, 387
women 431, 489
see also emigration; urbanisation
Mikhail, Grand Duke, refusal to take
throne 115
Mikhailov, P., popular singer 208
Mikhoels, Solomon, actor 507
execution (1948) 609
Mikoyan, Anastas 242, 249, 263
and deposition of Khrushchev 290
and fall of Beria 726–7
and foreign policy-making 668
and Hungary 678
and Khrushchev 275, 276
and Molotov 259
and Poland 677
and Stalin 186, 259, 264, 265
military-revolutionary committees 135, 137
Miliukov, Pavel, foreign minister in
Provisional Government 10, 123
Millikan, Max, at MIT 30
Milo
ˇ
sevi
´
c, Slobodan 704
ministers, tsarist, influence of 70–1
Ministry of Culture 612
Ministry of Defence (1992) 702
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA)
relations with CCID 685–7
under Gorbachev 696
under Yeltsin 702
Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD) 668
responsibility for Gulag administration
675
and transition under Yeltsin 356
Ministry of State Security (MGB) 663
control over police (militsiia) 668
and East European states 669
merged with MVD 675
see also KGB
Mirbach, Count, German ambassador,
assassination of 145
Mission to Moscow (film) 19
MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology),
Center of International Studies
(CENIS) 30
Mitterrand, Franc¸ois, president of France 348
mobility
geographical 78, 400
see also migration; social mobility
Model Collective Farm Code (1935) 424
Model Regulations of Production
Enterprises 460
modernisation
admiration for First Five-Year Plan 14
in Brezhnev era 295–6
820
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liberal goals for 73
material economic progress 77
negative aspects of (pre-revolutionary)
78–9, 85
and science 549, 577–8
modernisation paradigm 28–32
see also development
modernism
cultural 580–1, 582
in literature 587
modernity, ‘totalitarian’ effects of 28
Moldavia (Moldova from 1991) 495, 531
and Commonwealth of Independent States
516
Democratic Movement in Support of
Restructuring 544
dissent 542
independence 349, 517, 531
independence (1991) 547
Moldovanisation policy in Transnistria
537
Muslim population in 546
nationalist movements 544
post-Soviet transition 354, 548
republic (1940) 658
separatism 546, 702
under Romanian rule 531, 535, 546
see also Bessarabia
Moldovan Popular Front 544
Molotov, Viacheslav 242, 246, 263,
657
and Comintern 648, 649, 650
deposed 681, 682
and Eastern Europe 666
and foreign policy 283, 668, 681
and formation of GKO 255
and Hungary 677, 678
and Khrushchev 275, 276, 277
on kulaks 421
and Non-Aggression Pact with Germany
221, 659
and Poland 677
recantation in Kommunist 674
and science programme 563
and Stalin 186, 246
Stalin’s attacks on 253–4, 259, 264, 265
view of Tito 670, 676
Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact (1939) 18, 221, 505,
537, 655–7
denounced (1979) 541, 543
human chain protest (Tallinn to Vilnius)
545
Japan and 654
money, loss of function (1918–20) 390
Montesquieu, Baron Charles de 7
Moore, Barrington, Jr. 25
Morits, Iunna 615
Morning Post, London newspaper 9
Morozov family, as arts patrons 581
Moscow
Bol’shoi theatre 581, 603
Chechen terrorist attacks 376
as cultural centre 581–2
German advance on (1941) 222, 229
living standards 303
martial law in 97
peasant immigration 443
population growth 83, 201
population losses (civil war) 170
US–USSR summit (1985) 339
zemstvo relief committee 105
Moscow Art School 581
Moscow Arts Theatre 581, 590
Moscow International Film Festival (1959)
611
Moscow Machine Building Trust 169
Moscow province, peasant out-migration
443
Moscow State Institute of International
Affairs (MGIMO) 696
Mosely, Philip 30
Mozambique 308, 314
Mozzhukhin, Ivan 583
Muggeridge, Malcolm, Manchester Guardian
correspondent 16
Mulla Nasreddin (Muslim magazine) 92
Munich (Germany), Institute for the Study of
the USSR 21
M
¨
unnich, Ferenc, Hungary 678
Muradeli, Vano, composer 607
Murakhovskii, Vsevolod 320
Muratova, Kira, film director 630
Muscovy, foreign perceptions of 6
music
audio cassettes 626
classical 209
folk 599
jazz 208, 590, 597
love songs 598
marches 597, 602
opera 598–9
popular 582, 599
post-war repression 607
Red Army Chorus 597
and socialist realism 595
wartime popular songs 602
821
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Muslims
Bolshevik policies to emancipate women
174
cultural reform 92
in First World War 103
nationalism among 91, 92
see also Islam
mutinies, Volynskii regiment (February
uprising) 114
mysticism 80
Nabokov, Vladimir 633
Nagorno-Karabakh 345, 512, 515
Nagy, Imre, Hungarian prime minister 676,
678
dismissed 677
Narbikova, Valeriia 633
Narkomindel see People’s Commissariat for
Foreign Affairs
Narliev, Khojakuli, film-maker 625
nation-building
Europe 495
in pre-revolution western states 524–31
stages in 524
national character 11, 42, 55
as ‘Asiatics’ 20
formed by climate 7, 10
formed by swaddling of infants 23
role of institutions 7
Western assumptions about 6–7
national identity
Russian 90
in USSR 211, 498
national liberation movements (NLMs) 26
Afghanistan (1920s) 638
and First World War 102, 496
Gorbachev and 698
Gromyko’s view of 685–6
rivalry with China over 690
Stalin’s policy towards 673
support for 308, 312, 689
USSR as natural ally for 675
see also Third World
nationalism 56, 91
among non-Russians (1917) 130–1, 148,
149
and class 131
and dissent 540–2
and glasnost’ 344, 514, 542–4
and perestroika 406, 544
reconstruction of 344
and revolution 130
and separatism 544–7
under Brezhnev 304, 310, 512–13
see also Russian nationalism
nationalities
Bolshevik government and 148–51,
497–8
and break-up of USSR 355–7, 516–17
and collectivisation 501
contradictory policies in pre-revolutionary
Russia 89–93
deportations 202, 502–3
in First World War 100–4, 109
formalisation of 210
historiography of 55–6
Khrushchev’s policies 282
and korenizatsiia (indigenisation) 176, 180,
210, 498–9
local policies on 89
and migration to urban areas 387
Muslim 150–1
NEP policy towards 174–7, 393
and post-Soviet nation-building 517–18
in the Soviet West 522–3
Stalinist reconstruction of 210–12
under Brezhnev 304–5
in USSR 176–7, 192, 220, 342, 498
view of socialism among 498
and White movement 112
nationality, as basis of privileges and
repression 241, 513
NATO
Russian Federation view of expansion
(1990s) 703–4
and war in Kosovo 703, 704
natural gas 194, 306
exports from Turkmenistan 408
production 456
nauchnaia organizatsiia truda (NOT), scientific
organisation of labour 449
Nazarbaev, Nursultan, president of
Kazakhstan 347
Nearing, Scott 12
Neizvestny, Ernst 280, 291
Nekrasov, Viktor, Both Sides of the Ocean 616
Nemtsov, Boris, provincial governor of
Nizhnii Novgorod 370, 434, 437
neo-traditionalism 60–1
NEPseeNewEconomic Policy(NEP) (1921–8)
Nepmen (private traders) 179, 181, 182, 187,
391, 394
Stalin’s view of 189, 721
Netherlands
colonies 219
German invasion 657
822
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New Economic Policy (NEP) (1921–8) 51, 159,
166, 384, 390–4
assessment of 391–3
Bolshevik concerns over 180
central planning 169–70
effect of death of Lenin on 182
end of 190–1, 393–4
and nationalities 174–7, 393
as new approach 168, 169
and popular culture 590–1
recovery 170–1, 392
retrospective view of 404, 730
as stage in progress towards socialism 180,
187, 718
state capitalism of 199
under Stalin 185–91
and women’s status 475–6
and work force 446
New Life newspaper 584
New Republic, and Russian invasion of
Finland 18
New Soviet Man (NSM), concept of 663, 666,
673
New York Times
misreadings of Bolshevik revolution 9
publication of Khrushchev’s speech (1956)
269
newspapers see press
Nicaragua 698
Nicholas II, Tsar 71
abdication 107, 115
assassination at Ekaterinburg with family
145
and concept of nation 71, 90
October Manifesto (1905) 68, 70
order to crush February uprising
115
personal command of army 97
prorogation of Duma 104
relations with government 104, 107
and Ukraine 530
nightclubs, St Petersburg 581
Nijinsky, Vaslav 582
Nikolai Nikolaevich, Grand Prince, as
supreme army commander 96
Nilin, Pavel, scriptwriter 606
Nixon, Richard, US president 306, 307
Nizhnii Novgorod
land reform proposals (1990s) 434,
435
peasant out-migration 443
NKVD (Commissariat of the Interior)
control over police 214
methods of deportation 502
powers of 239, 240
use of forced labour 401
Nobel prizes 550, 559
nomads and nomadism
collectivisation of 398
suppression of 500
Non-Aligned Movement 681
North Africa 646
Norway, Second World War 657
Nove, Alec (1915–94) 32, 33
Novocherkassk, 1962 price riots 302, 403,
457
Novosibirsk 201
opera house 204, 206
urban planning 204
Novotn
´
y, Anton
´
ın 299
Novyi mir ( journal) 610, 616, 627
protection of writers 620
NSM see New Soviet Man (NSM)
nuclear research 562
nuclear test-ban treaty 288
nuclear weapons 289, 566
assumption of US–Soviet parity 306, 573
Chinese request for 680, 689–90
first atomic test 562
intercontinental ballistic missile 563
limitation treaties (1972) 307
reduction agreement (Washington 1987)
339
thermonuclear test 563
unilateral moratorium on testing (1985) 700
obshchestvennitsy (wife-activists) 482
October Manifesto (1905) 68, 70, 84
Octobrists (Union of 17 October) 73
Ogarkov, Nikolai, chief of the general staff
693
Ogonek, reformist periodical 695
oil
Caucasus 386, 519
consumption 403
price falls 332, 373
Russian multinational companies 407, 704
Siberian reserves 306
Okeev, Tolomush, film-maker 625
Oktiabr’ (journal) 621
Okudzhava, Bulat 614, 615
Old Believers 458
Olearius, Adam, on Muscovy 7
oligarchs, rise of (1990s) 371, 703
oligarchy, defined 244
Olympic Games, Moscow (1980) 312
823
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Omsk
Kadets’ anti-Bolshevik government in 145
soviet (1917) 118
opera 598–9
opinion polls 328, 687
see also public opinion
Ordzhonikidze, Sergo 175, 249
and 1928 ‘emergency measures’ 247
and Stalin 246, 250–1
suicide (1937) 251
Orel province, martial law (1917) 128
Organisation of Ukrainian Nationalists
(OUN) 504, 534
Orlova, Liubov’ 599
Orthodox Church
attempts to revitalise 80
Bolshevik government and 148
and family law 468
Khrushchev’s restrictions on 282
millennium of Christianity celebration 324
missionary work in borderlands 90
and sectarian movements 81
wartime freedom for 504
Orwell, George (1903–50) 18
1984 23, 62, 324
Animal Farm 23, 324
Osipenko, Polina 480
Ossetia 515
Ostrovskii, Nikolai Alekseevich (1904–37),
How the Steel was Tempered 614
otkhodniki (hired labourers) 414
Ottoman Empire, and First World War 95,
103, 495
Our Home is Russia party 368
Outer Mongolia 667
Ovalov, Lev, novelist 627
Ovechkin, Valentin, ‘District Routine’ 610
paganism, and folk religion 87
Pale of Settlement, Jewish 91
formal end of (1915) 101
Pan-Islamism 92
Pan-Turkism 92, 497
Panch, Petro, Ukrainian writer 606
Panfilov, Gleb, The Theme 630
Panina, Varia 582
Papanin, Ivan, Arctic explorer 724
Paradzhanov, Sergei 625
parastatal complex
emergence of during First World War 105–7
and Provisional Government 107, 108
Pares, Bernard (1867–1949), historian 10
Paris, four-power summit (1960) 287
parliament, democratic, as goal of liberals 73
Pasha Angelina, first woman tractor driver
425
passports, internal (1932) 211, 425, 447
Pasternak, Boris 209, 588
Doctor Zhivago 207, 281, 324, 589
Nobel prize 614, 682
Pasvolsky, Leo 13
paternalism
enterprise 458–62
in pre-revolutionary Russia 458
paternity suits 484, 486, 488
patriarchalism 76, 413, 468
Patriotic War see Second World War
patriotism 230
and defence campaign 426
oppositionist 104
study of indoctrination methods 11
P
¨
ats, Konstantin, Estonian nationalist 525, 533
Pavlov, I.P., Nobel prizewinner 550, 565
Pa
´
zniak, Zianon, Belarusian archaeologist 543
peasants 412, 442–3
and 1906 commune reforms 389, 415–16
alienated by Bolshevik food procurement
policies 147, 159–60, 419
Bolshevik categorisation of 179
and Bolshevik class narrative 718–22
in Brezhnev era 429–32
and collectivisation 420–6
resistance to 195–6, 422–4
social effects of 197
and election of township committees 117
and elections to Constituent Assembly
139
and First World War 416–17
Green rebellions (1918–21) 161–2, 168
growth of political discontent among 87–8
as hired labourers 414
Khrushchev’s view of 427
and land settlement 127–8, 136–7, 160, 177
migration to towns 88, 443
and NEP 177–80, 188–9, 419–20
and parastatals under Provisional
government 108
and perestroika 433–7
in pre-revolutionary Russia 86–9, 411–12
prospects for in post-Soviet Russia 437–9
rejection of communal land tenure 163
and religious and spiritual revival 81
restrictions on mobility of 197, 399
Revolution (autumn 1917) 126–8
right to cultivate plots and own livestock
196, 206, 407, 424–5
824
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sale of surplus on free market 169, 186, 194,
391
and Second World War 231–2, 426–7
as targets of mass repression 213, 427
transformation into proletarian workers
442–8
view of labour 412
and War Communism 417–19
see also agriculture; kulaks
penal colonies
deportation of kulaks to 195
deported populations in 202
see also labour camps
Penza province, martial law (1917) 128
People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan 311,
691
perestroika 325–31, 344
backlash 326, 405–6
economic reforms 404–6, 463–4
effect on rural life 433–7
‘from below’ 463–4
and nationalism 406, 544
and rethinking of path to socialism 729
Pervukhin, Mikhail, and Khrushchev 277
P
´
etain, Marshal Henri 657
Peter the Great, Tsar, and science 549
Peterburgskii listok (daily newspaper) 78
Petkus, Victoras, Helsinki Watch in
Lithuania 541
Petliura, Simon, Ukrainian nationalist 496
Petrakov, Nikolai, economist 331
Petrograd
demonstrations at Tauride Palace ( July
1917) 126
February 1917 revolution in 114–16
industrialists 121
population losses (civil war) 170, 445
renaming of St Petersburg 97
storming of Winter Palace (1917) 135
see also Leningrad; St Petersburg
Petrograd Soviet 108, 115
agitational literature for rural areas 126
insurrection in support of garrison 135
invitation to join Provisional Government
116
Military Revolutionary Committee (MRC)
135
Order No.1 (destruction of army
command) 120
Petrovskii, Grigorii 249
Petrushevskaia, Liudmila, playwright 620
Philby, Kim 660
philosophy, and science 557, 568
physics 559, 564
Piatnitskii, Osip 648, 649
Pichul, Vasilii, Little Vera 631
Pikul’, Valentin 627
Pil’niak, Boris 598
Naked Year 587
Pipes, Richard 39, 45, 46, 497
on US National Security Council 54
Plehve, Viacheslav, assassination of (1904)
68
Plekhanov, Georgii 711
Plevitskaia, Nadezhda 582
pluralism, socialist (Gorbachev’s use of
term) 322
Pobedonostsev, Konstantin, chief procurator
of Orthodox Church 70
Podgornyi, Nikolai 290, 297
dismissed (1977) 309
poetry
open-air readings 615
under Bolsheviks 587–9
poets 581
fate of 589
pogroms
First World War 99, 103
of Jews 90, 506
Pokoianie (Repentance) (film) 324
Pokrass Brothers, composers 597
Pokrovskii, M.N., and Marxist science 557
Pokrovsky School of history 499
Poland 95, 495
assimilated by USSR 222, 505
conflict with Bolsheviks 146, 638
elections (1947) 666
German invasion 219
German offensive against (1914) 96
German–Russian agreement on (1939)
221
and Japan 652
murder of Soviet ambassador (1927) 246
nationalism in 130, 149
relations with USSR 669, 677, 686
and repression of Belorussia 533–4
rise of Solidarity movement 312–13, 542,
686
scorched earth policy (1915) 99
Stalin’s ambitions for 655, 656
Ukrainian nationalism in 534
Poles in Russia
deportations of 99, 202, 401, 502
during First World War 99, 102
nationalism among 91
in Ukraine 529
825
© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org
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978-0-521-81144-6 - The Cambridge History of Russia, Volume III: The Twentieth Century
Edited by Ronald Grigor Suny
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