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police, civil (militsiia) 215

State Security (MGB) control over 668

subordinated to political police 215

police, political, and mass repressions 212,

214–15

police, secret 264

see also NKVD

Polish United Workers’ Party 313

Politburo (Political Bureau)

ageing (1970s) 309

appointments to 260, 320

attempt to block Gorbachev 317–19

collective leadership under Brezhnev 297

conﬂicts within 249

and creation of Presidency (1990) 329

and ‘emergency measures’ (1928) 247

and expulsion of Trotsky 245

manipulation of decision-making 252

personal rights and networks 250, 320

promotion of younger cohort to (1938–9)

252

purges within 251

relationship to Sovmin 260–1

relative autonomy of members 246, 248,

249–50

resistance to Gorbachev’s reforms 321

ruling group (‘quintet’) 253

Stalin’s domination of 195, 240, 248, 260

working methods of ‘septet’ in Stalin’s

absences 263

see also Presidium

Political Directorate of the War Ministry 111

Political Directorate of the Workers’ and

Peasants’ Red Army (1918) 111

political parties, in Russian Federation

366–9

new coalitions (1999) 377–8

political prisoners

amnestied (1953) 674

released from Gulags 276

political science

‘behaviouralist revolution’ (1960s) 41

move towards social history 37–43

political culture approach 42

and ‘totalitarian model’ 22–8

politics

opposition in First World War 104–5

radicalisation of (1917) 109

re-emergence of popular (1980s) 330

and science 550–2, 569–70, 571, 577

see also Marxism

politruk system of dual command (Red

Army) 235, 236

Pollitt, Harry, British communist 649

Pomerantsev, Vladimir 611

Ponomarev, Boris, CCID secretary 684, 686,

695

and Afghanistan 692

on Gorbachev 697

Popkov, P.S., and Leningrad Affair 261,

262

Popov, Evgenii 628

on ‘sixtiers’ 628

Popovsky, Mark,

´

emigr

´

e scientist 574

Poprov, A.I., farmer 439

population

birthrate 481, 489, 490

fall (1990s) 492

in labour camps 202

life expectancy 492

recovery in early 1920s 170

under Stalinism 200–1

Populist socialists, compared with Marxists 74

Port Arthur 667, 673

Portal, Roger 37

Poskrebyshev, Aleksandr 265

Possony, Stefan 23

post-colonialism

and development 29

see also national liberation movements

Postyshev, Pavel Petrovich, purged 251

Potemkin, Vladimir 654

Potsdam accords 286

poverty

as precondition for communism 30

women 492

Powers, Gary, U-2 spy plane pilot 287, 684,

686

Poznan, Poland, demonstrations 677

Praeger, Frederick A., publisher 40

Prague, Problems of Peace and Socialism

headquarters 687

Pravda

1938 stories 723–4

publication of Yevtushenko’s poem ‘The

Heirs of Stalin’ 281

Preobrazhenskii, Evgenii, economist 418

Presidency, ofﬁce of (1990) 328, 329

and constitutional crisis (1993) 362

constraints on 330

and transition under Yeltsin 356

Presidency, Russian Federation (1993), powers

of 363–4

Presidential Council 329

Presidium (of the Central Committee of the

Communist Party) 264, 277–8

826

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and attempt to depose Khrushchev (1957)

277–8

reverted to name of Politburo 298

press

Bolshevik control over 584

diversiﬁcation under Gorbachev 324

foreign broadcasts to Russia 324

and liberal Russian identity 703

mass circulation daily newspapers 77, 78,

79, 88

reporting of disasters 323

state monopoly 715

underground nationalist 512

wartime 602

see also censorship; journalists; television

press agency, use of posters 586

press freedom

in 1905 reforms 69, 77

Stolypin’s restrictions on 69

under Gorbachev 324

prices

liberalisation (1992) 359, 435

rises (1990s) 435

subsidised 302, 403

Prigorodnyi, North Ossetia 512

Primakov, Evgenii 345, 685

and 1999 presidential elections

377–8

prime minister 375–6

prime minister, ofﬁce of 363

printing presses

Bolshevik control over 584

family-owned 583

see also publishing

privatisations (of state enterprises) 360–1, 406,

463, 465–6

and agriculture 434

insider 333, 360

loans-for-shares schemes 371, 407

‘voucher’ 407

Problems of Communism (journal) 21

professionals

and February Revolution 132

women as 469

Progressive Bloc, in First World War 104

Prokoﬁev, Igor 606

Prokoﬁev, Sergei 208

proletariat (urban workers)

and Bolshevik class ideology 121, 164,

444

and culture 592–4

dictatorship of 52

historical mission of 707, 710

Marxist image of 82, 444

‘moral’ demands of 84

in pre-revolutionary Russia 82–6

relations with Bolshevik government

163–6

transformation of peasants into 442–8

Proletkul’t 155, 585

propaganda

Bolshevik use of 585–6, 715

collectivisation campaign 195, 398, 478

military use of in First World War 100

of motherhood 473, 476–7, 480, 484

and nationalities 504

and popular alienation (under Brezhnev)

305

wartime 601–2, 636

property

Bolshevik abolition of private 156

creation of new rights (1990s) 360

Protazanov, Iakov 583

Protection of Motherhood and Infancy

organisation 476

Proudhonists, French 707

provincial committees, formed after

February Revolution 117

Provisional Government 112, 123

and ‘dual power’ 115–16

failure of 138

and local authority 117

origins in parastatal complex 107

planned overthrow of 134

relations with army 108

relations with nationalities 109, 496

Przemysl, fall of (1915) 97

psycho-history 43

public opinion

All-Soviet (All-Russian) Institute for Public

Opinion (VTsIOM) 328

and expansion of civic life 77

and failed coup (1991) 349, 352

Public Opinion Research Institute 687

publishing

and protection of writers 620

state control of 595

see also press; printing presses

Pudovkin, Vsevolod 592

The Return of Vasilii Bortnikov 610

Pugacheva, Alla 626

purges

Communist Party (1920–1) 154

Eastern Europe 671

within Politburo 251

see also Great Purges

827

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Putilov works, Petrograd 114

Putin, Vladimir 62, 376, 377

and Chechen war 378, 520

and nationalities 520–1

rising popularity of 378–9

Pyr’ev, Ivan 599, 601

radar, development of 562

Radek, Karl 639

radio, wartime 602

Radus-Zen’kovich, V.A. 161

Raeff, Marc 38

Raikin, Arkadii 626

railways

inadequate for troop movement 96

labour for 387

Trans-Siberian 67, 386, 647

Turksib railway 401, 654

under NEP 171

Rainis, J

¯

anis, Latvian poet 526

Raizman, Iulii, The Communist 614

Rajk, Laszlo, Hungarian foreign minister 671

Rakhmanin, Oleg 691

R

´

akosi, M

´

aty

´

as, Hungarian communist 671,

677

Rambaud, Alfred 7

ranks and titles, abolition of 156

Ransome, Arthur, journalist 8

Rapallo, Treaty of (1921) 640

Rashidov, Sharaf, Uzbekistan 305, 309, 314

Raskova, Marina 480

Rasputin, Valentin 623, 683

Fire 633

rationing 158, 198

under perestroika 463

Rayonist movement 582

Reagan, Ronald, US president 54, 313

relations with Gorbachev 338, 339, 340,

699

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) 337,

573

red, symbolism of (February uprising) 114, 119

Red Army 144, 150, 473

demobilisation 170

desertions (1918–20) 160

doctrine of the offensive 235, 237

and doctrine of pre-emptive strike 221

dual command with political commissars

235, 236, 238

encirclement (1941) 222

frontier defence 237

Khrushchev’s cuts 289

low morale 228, 238

morale in Afghanistan 312

political and military compromise in

organisation 235

reliance on nuclear weapons 289

role in revolution 717, 719

Second World War 234–9

conscription 238

military deaths 225, 233

national units 504

obsolete equipment 398

women in 483

size of 235

Stalin’s purge of command staff (1937–8)

221, 228, 236, 654

Stalin’s Stavka command structure 237

str

¯

elnieki Latvian infantry 526

and transition under Yeltsin 356

war against Finland 228

Red Cross, and war relief (First World War)

105

Red Guards (Petrograd October 1917) 135

allowed to challenge orders 234

Reed, John, American journalist 8, 119

reformist discourse

intelligentsia and 688

and new thinking under Gorbachev

696

and research institutes 687–8

reforms, (after 1905 revolution)

contradictory nature of 68–9

see also perestroika

refugees, First World War 99, 101, 416

relief organisations, First World War

refugee 101

war relief (parastatals) 105–7

religion

national variations 504

revivals 80–2, 205

in rural areas 87, 205

suppression of 282, 500

in western republics 540

see also Orthodox Church

religious societies 80

religious tolerance

in 1905 reforms 91

under Gorbachev 323

Remnik, David 15

repression

of civil society 167

class basis of 211

of dissidents 298, 319, 682

as instrument of policy 214

mass 212–16, 425

828

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peasants 213, 427

post-war cultural 605–10, 682

role of police in 212, 215

of scientists 560–1

of women 482

see also collectivisation; deportations; Great

Purges; terror

republics (of USSR)

Academies of Science 572

and autonomous regions 343, 498

elections to legislatures (1990) 328, 330

ﬁlm studios 625–6

institutional autonomy 343

movement of Russians into 501

relations with USSR 342–3

role in leadership struggle (1953) 508–9

republics, post-independence

conﬂicts within 517

and Russian populations 517–18

research institutes

and liberal identity 703

and reformist discourse 687–8, 698

revolution

and Bolshevik view of class narrative 716–18

Deutscher’s law of 35

as illegitimate 46

modernism as 295

as tradition 156

Revolution of 1905 68, 77, 459

Estonia 525

and land reform 388

Lithuania 527

and movement for women’s emancipation

76, 470

scientists and 551

Revolution of 1917

and autonomy for nationalities 496

effect on Russian culture 579

effect on Russia’s war 107–11

and expectation of world revolution 636–7

February Revolution 8, 114–17, 122, 131

local government organisation 117–19

politics of war (March-July) 122–6

‘July Days’ 125–6

October Revolution

and failure of democracy 44

revisionist historiography of 43–9

Western liberal view of 8

poets and 588

political polarization (summer 1917) 128–33

role of peasants in 416

scientists and 552–4

see also Provisional Government

Revolutionary Communists (RC) 144

‘revolutionary defencism’ 108, 110

Tsereteli’s 123

Reykjavik, US–USSR summit (1985) 339

Rhys Williams, Albert 8

Riazan’ province, peasant out-migration

443

Riazanov, Eldar 624

The Irony of Fate 625

Ribbentrop, Joachim von, and

Non-Aggression Pact with USSR 221

Rieber, Alfred 37

Riga, Latvia 526, 540

Riga, Treaty of (1921) 146, 150

Rittersporn, Gabor T. 53

Riutin, Martemian 722

Robinson, Geroid Tanquary, Rural Russia

Under the Old Regime 13

Rodionov, M. I., and Leningrad Affair 261,

262

Romania

elections (1947) 666

German invasion (1940) 659

and Hungarian uprising 679

independence 341

and Moldova 546

Ukrainian nationalists in 534

see also Bessarabia; Moldavia

Romanian National Liberal Party 534

Romanov, Aleksei 624

Romanov dynasty

end of 115

patronage of arts 581

Romanov, Grigorii 319, 320

Romm, Mikhail

Ordinary Fascism 617

Secret Mission 608

Room, Abram, Court of Honour 608

Roosevelt, F.D., US president 652

Rossiia, concept of 90, 701

Rossman, Jeffrey 54

ROSTA (Russian Telegraph Agency) 586

Rostotskii, Stanislas, It Happened in

Penkovo 613

Rostov-on-Don, Soviet army at 231

Rostow, Walt Whitman (1916–2003)

The Dynamics of Soviet Society 30–1

The Stages of Economic Growth 30

Rostropovich, Mstislav 620

Rothstein, Andrew, British communist 658

Rozhdestvenskii, Robert 615

Rubenstein, Modest, scientist 561

Rudenko, Mykola, Helsinki Watch 541

829

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Rudzutak, Ian 246, 248, 251

rural areas

effect of February Revolution 117

and German advance (1941) 228

unrest in 87, 204–5

see also agriculture; collectivisation;

commune; villages

Rus’, concept of 90

Russell, Bertrand 10

Russia, pre-revolutionary 7, 354

attempts to understand 13–14, 15–16

imperial foreign policy 95

legacy of autocracy 153

martial law regime in First World War

97–100

optimist–pessimist debate (1900–14) 67, 93

politics of First World War 104–7

science in 549–52

and transition from tsarism to

Communism

western borderlands in First World War 95,

97, 110, 111–13

see also Russian empire; Russian

Federation; USSR

Russian Association of Proletarian Musicians

(RAPM) 593

Russian Association of Proletarian Writers

(RAPP) 593

Russian Central Bank, and 1998 economic

crisis 372

Russian empire

and eastern Ukraine 529

and ethnic minorities 89–93

nationalisation of during First World War

100–4

Russiﬁcation policies 495

Russian Federation 518

centrist discourse 701, 702

conservative discourse in 701

declaration of independence (1990) 347, 356,

516, 546

and demand by Chechnya for secession

364–6

liberal discourse in 700, 702–3

new constitution (1993) 363–4

and Tatarstan 518

Russian nationalism

radical 366–8

Stalin’s promotion of 504

tsarist promotion of 90

use of Christian symbols of 602

Russian Social Democratic Workers’

Party 124, 144, 525

Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic

(RSFSR) 174, 498

see also Russian Federation

Russians

in Baltic states 506, 547

movement into non-Russian republics 501,

540

see also national character

Russia’s Choice party (pro-Yeltsin) 366, 368

‘Russiﬁcation’, policy of 90–1, 495

Russo-Japanese War (1904–5) 68

Rutskoi, Aleksandr, declared president by

Congress 362

Ryazan’ province, martial law (1917) 128

Rybakov, Anatolii, Heavy Sand 621

Rybkin, Ivan 368

Rykov, Aleksei 246, 249

and 1928 ‘emergency measures’ 247, 248

and Stalin 185, 186

trial (1938) 723

Ryzhkov, Nikolai 317, 320, 321

and economic reform 331, 334, 404

Saburov, Maksim 277

St Petersburg

‘Bloody Sunday’ (Jan. 1905) 68

as cultural centre 581–2

daily newspapers 78

Mariinsky Theatre 581

population 83, 443

Religious-Philosophical Meetings (1901–3)

80

see also Petrograd

St Petersburg Academy of Sciences 549

Sakharov, Andrei 280, 298, 577

campaign against 573

election to Congress (1989) 327

‘Letter to the Soviet Leadership’ 683

Reﬂections on Progress . . . 570

salaried workers (sluzhashchie), and February

Revolution 132

SALT II Treaty (1972) 307

negotiations 307, 312

Samara, Committee to Save the Constituent

Assembly (Komuch) 144

samizdat (underground distribution of

proscribed literature) 620, 621

Saratov province

forcible requisitioning of food (1919) 161

martial law (1917) 128

strike (1921) 166

township committees (1917) 117

Sargent, Orme, British Foreign Ofﬁce 660

830

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Savinok, Iurii 438

Schapiro, Leonard, Origins of the Communist

Autocracy 36

Scheffer, Paul, Berliner Tageblatt

correspondent 16

Schlesinger, Rudolf (1901–69) 36

Schlieffen Plan 96

Schulenberg, Count Friedrich Werner von

der, German ambassador to USSR 255

Schuyler, Eugene 7

Schwarz, Solomon, Menshevik historian 48

science

applied to war effort (Second World War)

561–3

and dissidence 573–4

effect of Chernobyl’ disaster on 574–5

expenditure on 556, 566

Hegelian dialectic and 555

and intellectual freedom 570–1

international investment in (from 1991) 576

and modernisation 549, 577–8

and politics 550–2, 569–70, 571, 577

in post-Soviet Russia 575–7

restrictions on foreign contacts 563–4,

568

Soviet inferiority to West 566

Stalinist use of 558–60

see also technology

scientiﬁc research 550

concentration on military technology

572–3, 576

effect of 1917 Revolution on 553

under Bolshevik government 554

scientiﬁc socialism 707, 709

‘scientiﬁc-technological revolution’

(nauchno-tekhnicheskaia revoliutsiia

NTO) 457

scientists

‘academic rations’ 553

emigration (after 1991) 576

numbers of 566

political activism 571

and Revolution of 1917 552–4

and Stalinist repression 560–1

scorched earth policy

First World War 99

Second World War 223

Scott, James 59

Scott, Joan Wallach 49

Second Congress of Soviets 143

Second World War

international origins of 217–19

war in Europe (to 1941) 654–61

Second World War (Great Patriotic War in

Soviet Union, 1941–5) 192, 217

and arts 600–3, 622

deportations 502

the Eastern Front 222–7

effect on economy 227, 241, 402

effect on Stalinist state 227, 239–42

in ﬁlm and ﬁction 614

German invasion of Soviet Union (1941) 18,

222, 223, 225, 228–9, 230

patriotic defence campaign 426

peasants and 426–7

science in 561–3

Soviet resistance 229–34

treatment of civilians under German

occupation 226, 231–2

turning point for Allies 224

victory 239

see also Red Army

sectarianism 81

secularism, among Jews 92

sedition, trials for (1906–7) 69

Semenov, Iulian, novelist 627

Semenov, N. N., chemist 569

Semichastnyi, Vladimir 269

Serbia, Austrian ultimatum to 95

serfdom, abolition of (1861) 86, 87

Seton Watson, Hugh (1916–84) 36

Sewell, William H., Jr. 49

sex, civic discussion of 78

Shaginian, Marietta, Mess-Mend 591

Shakhnazarov, Georgii 316, 326, 347, 684,

686

on role of General Secretary 685

Shakhty trial (mining engineers) 189, 560

Shamshiev, Bolotbek, Kyrgyz ﬁlm-maker 625

Shanghai International Settlement 643

Shatalin, Stanislav 334

Shaw, George Bernard 15

‘Shchekino experiment’ 299

Shcherbakov, Aleksandr Sergeevich 252, 508

Shcherbitskii, Vladimir, Ukraine 301, 305

Shchukin family, as arts patrons 581

Shelest’, Petro, Ukraine 300, 511, 540

Shengelaia, Eldar, ﬁlm director 630

Shenin, Oleg 348

Shepilov, Dmitrii 681, 685

and Khrushchev 277, 675

Shevardnadze, Eduard 321

as foreign minister 338, 340, 696

and Georgian nationalism 345

Shipler, David 15

Shliapnikov, A.G., Workers’ Opposition 164

831

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Sholokhov, Mikhail 611

Quiet Don 608

shops and shopping 77, 79

stores for Soviet elite 302–4

see also black markets; commodities

Shostakovich, Dmitrii 208, 209, 606

‘Babii Yar’ Symphony 616

Lady Macbeth of Mstensk 598

show trials 617, 682

1936–8 723–4

and loss of support for USSR 17

republican nationalists (1928–9) 499

scientists 189, 560

Shpalikov, Gennadii 616

Shtiurmer, B.V., chairman of Council of

Ministers 107

Shukshin, Vasilii 613, 623, 624

Snowball Berry Red 625

Shultz, George, US secretary of state 340

Shulzhenko, Klavdiia, singer 602

Shumeiko, Vladimir 359

Shumiatskii, Boris 596

Shumsky, Oleksandr, and Ukrainisation

536

Shushkevich, Stanislav, president of

Belarus 349

Shveitser, Mikhail, Alien Kin 613

Siberia

demand for compensation for

environmental damage 408

labour camps 202

peasant uprising 161

urban growth 201

Virgin Lands programme 203, 275, 390, 402,

429

Whites in 146

Sibneft, oil company 407

Sidanco oil company 407

Simmons, Ernest J. 22

Simonov, Konstantin, journalist 563, 602, 612

Siniavskii, Andrei 298, 621

trial 617, 682

Skoropadsky, General Pavlo, Ukrainian

hetman 530

Skrypnyk, Mykola, and Ukrainisation 536

Sl

´

ansk

´

y, Rudolf 670

Slavonic Review, The 10

Slutskii, Boris 609

‘Physicists and Lyric Poets’ (poem) 566

Smetona, Antanas, Lithuanian

nationalist 528, 532

Smirnov, Andrei 630

Smith, Hedrick 15

smychka (worker–peasant co-operation) 178,

720

Social Democracy, Russian 710–13

revolutionary modiﬁcation of 711

Social Democracy, Western 8, 706

Kautsky and 708–9

perception of betrayal by 714

and worker movement 707–10

Social Democrats

and February Revolution 114, 706

see also Bolsheviks, Mensheviks

social disorder, resulting from collectivisation

and deportations 203–5

social history

and concept of working class 441–2

and labour politics 47

and totalitarian model of USSR 27–8

social mobility 78, 399

in early Soviet state 51

limited form of (under Brezhnev) 303

social reforms

liberal goals for 73

Stolypin’s commitment to 69

Social Revolutionary Party (SR) 74, 104

alliance of Left SRs with Bolsheviks 143

attempt to form anti-Bolshevik

government 144

and Bolshevik Sovnarkom 137

and elections to Constituent Assembly 138

expelled from soviets 144

and February Revolution 114, 124

and October Revolution 135

and peasant revolt (1918–21) 162

and Provisional Government 116

relations with Bolshevik government 147

social sciences, changes in terminology 21

socialism

failure of in Soviet Russia 35–6, 58

inﬂuence as economic model 384

interpretations of 322

Lenin’s belief in 125, 149, 181

‘path to’ 697, 730

scientiﬁc 707, 709

Stalin’s proclamation of victory of 205, 211,

214, 723

see also Bolshevism; capitalism;

communism; Marxism

Socialist Academy see Communist Academy

socialist realism 207–8, 594–600

socialists

and nationalist movements 91

political ideologies of 73–4

relations with Bolsheviks 143

832

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societies

and voluntary associations 77

see also parastatal complex

Society of Friends (Quakers), relief efforts

(1918–20) 391

Soiuzkino (ﬁlm industry organisation) 596

Sokol’skii, Konstantin 598

Sokurov, Aleksandr 630

soldiers

appeal of Provisional Government to 108

First World War 95, 97, 101

role in February Revolution 120

and rural agitation (1917) 126

Second World War 238

Solidarity movement, Poland 312–13

Solomentsev, Mikhail 326, 332

Solov’ev, Iurii 327

Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr 298

Cancer Ward 618

expulsion 617, 682

Gulag Archipelago 40, 52, 324

One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (1962)

281, 288, 616, 682

Sorokin, Pitirim 19

Sorokin, Valentin 633

Soros, George, International Science

Foundation 576

Sotsialisticheskii vestnik (Socialist Herald) 17

Soviet identity

and democratisation under Gorbachev

695–700

and foreign policy 705

NSM 663, 666, 673

and ‘private’ self 673

reinforced by false information 684

and toleration of difference 673–5

as vanguard 674, 675, 681, 684, 688, 697

see also difference

Soviet Studies ( journal) 36

Soviet Union see USSR (Union of Soviet

Socialist Republics)

Soviet West, the 522–3

German occupation 226, 231–2, 503–4, 538

and Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact 537

see also Baltic States; Belarus; Moldova;

Ukraine

Soviet Women’s Committee 491

Soviet Writers, Fourth Congress (1967) 618

soviets

Council of People’s Commissars (October

1917) 137

and party centralisation 152–3

popular support for 137–8

rise of (1917) 117, 118–19, 134

rural 418, 420

view of war 123

see also Central Committee of the Soviets

(VTsIK)

sovkhozy see cooperative farms

sovnarkhozy (economic councils) 158, 279

Sovnarkom see Council of Ministers (Sovmin);

Council of People’s Commissars

space progamme 402, 563

Spain 655

Special Council for Defence (1915) 106

spiritual revival 80–2

and discontent with materialism 81–2

‘God-Seeking’ 80

Spiro, Herbert J. 26

Sputnik (satellite), launched (1957) 40, 402, 563

Stakhanovism 396, 453–4

rural 425

Stalin, Joseph (1878–1953) 125, 253, 261

anti-Semitism 507

and fabrication of Doctors’ Plot (1951)

264, 267, 508

attacks on Molotov 253–4, 259, 264

character 244, 262

personality 216, 243–4

and China 274, 667, 671–2

and Comintern 637–8, 644–5

as commander-in-chief of army 237, 256

control of secret police 264

cult of 43, 244, 258, 600, 601

and de-Stalinisation 269, 276–7, 725–7

death (1953) 265–6, 508

as dictator 254, 258–63, 266

anti-oligarchic strategy (1952) 263–5

consolidation of personal dominance

239–40, 253

lack of challenges to 265

move from oligarchy to dictatorship

249–54

nature of control over state 243–5

subjugation of close advisers 258–60

and Five-Year Plan 395

foreign relations

and alliance with Britain 658

Non-Aggression Pact with Hitler (1939)

18, 221, 655–7

relations with foreign communist

parties 645

and formation of Transcaucasian Republic

175, 498

grain requisitions (1928–9) 188–9, 194, 394

and Hitler 221, 647–8

833

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Stalin, Joseph (1878–1953)(cont.)

interventions in science 563, 565–6

Khrushchev’s condemnation (1956) 268–9

‘Left Opposition’ to 185–6

legacy of 274

and Lenin 175–6

and Leningrad Affair 261–3

and nationalities 210, 498

head of Commissariat of Nationalities

(Narkomnats) 149

and NEP 185–6

change of policy on 186, 188–9

and nuclear weapons project 562

Order no.227 231

Order no.270 231

perception of threats

post-war external 258, 264, 427, 667–73

to revolution 199, 211, 216

and Politburo

control of 248, 260

manipulation of decision-making in 252

promotion of younger cohort (1938–9)

252

status in (1922) 183

politics

interpretation of kto-kogo scenario of

class leadership 721–2

‘socialism in one country’ 185, 193, 200

and post-war cultural ideology 594, 606

relations with deputies 244–5

rise to power 184–5, 189–90, 191, 245–8

rivalry with Trotsky 183–5

Second World War

delegation of powers during 256–8

invasion of Poland 656

punishment of defeatism 231, 237

reaction to German invasion 223, 229,

237, 254–6

and threat from enemies of socialism 205,

425, 723

use of repression 212–16, 425

Great Purges 52–3, 266

as instrument of policy 214

purge of Red Army ofﬁcers (1937–8) 221,

228, 236

view of Tito 670

see also Stalinism

Stalingrad, siege of 223

Stalinism 216, 394–401

consolidation of 205–6

contradictions within 192, 664

criticism of (under Gorbachev) 324

and cultural xenophobia 605–10

culture and morality 206–10, 607

demographics and population movements

200–5

as epitome of totalitarianism 23, 27, 40

and family law 481–2

forced collectivisation 192, 194–8, 398–400,

721

industrialisation 192, 200, 394–8

international context of 199–200

labour migration 446–7

mass repressions 212–16

nationalities under 210–12, 500–3

new hierarchies in 19

and ofﬁcial optimism 724–5

relationship to Bolshevism of civil war 140

and relationship to Leninism 16, 38, 46,

50–1, 142

revisionist historiography of 49–54

and science 555–61

Western Communist support for 17

see also Five-Year Plans

Stanford University, Hoover Institute of War,

Peace and Revolution 11

Stanislavsky, Konstantin 581, 590

state

civil institutions under Stalin 215

limitations on Stalinist 243

mechanisms of political control 319

see also autocracy; totalitarianism

State Association of Metal Factories 169

state capitalism see New Economic Policy

State Committee for New Technology 566

State Committee for the Press 619

State Control Commission, and corruption

(1919) 155

State Council, and martial law regime 98

State Department of Cinema (Goskino) 624

State Duma (1906–17) 68

authority of 68, 98

formation of committee (February 1917) 115

Fourth 98

prorogued 104

representation of minorities in 90

State Duma, Russian Federation 363

elections to 366

political crisis (1998–9) 374–6

proportional representation vote (1993) 366

threat to impeach Yeltsin 375

State Institute of Cinematography 616, 624

State Museum of Modern Western Art 607

state, tsarist

and industrialisation 67

popular protests against 69

834

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Stavka (General Headquarters), established

(1941) 237, 256

Stedman Jones, Gareth 49

Steffens, Lincoln, writer 8

Stepashin, Sergei, prime minister 376

Stolypin, Petr, prime minister 69, 71

assassination 69

commitment to social reforms 69

and Duma 98

reform of peasant communes (1906) 88,

103, 388, 415–16

Stravinsky, Igor 582, 615

strikes 83

1910–14 70, 84

against food shortages (1920–1) 168

coalminers (1989) 463

February 1917 Petrograd 114–15

legalised 69, 84

Lena goldﬁelds (Siberia) 70

Moscow 166

Petrograd 166

summer 1917 128, 471

Strumilin, Stanislav Gustavovich

(1877–1974) 395

Struve, P. V. 130

Stu

ˇ

cka, P

¯

eteris, Latvian Bolshevik 527

students

and February Revolution 131

radical 593

Suchkov, A. 421

Suez Crisis (1956) 285

Sukhanov, N. N. 421

Sukhomlinov, General, minister of war

(1914) 96

Sun Yat-sen, and Chinese nationalists 642

Suprematists 582

Supreme Council of the National Economy

(Sovnarkhoz) 158, 169, 279

Supreme Soviet, Gorbachev’s new 327

Suslov, Mikhail 297, 316, 678, 682

Central Committee secretary 282, 686,

691

death 314

on Mao 690

Sverdlovsk (Ekaterinburg)

assassination of royal family at 145

population growth 201

Sviatopolk-Mirskii, Prince Dmitrii 68

symbolism

February Revolution 119

Second World War use of Christian 602

Symbolists 82, 580, 581

Syrtsov, Sergei 249

Szporluk, Roman, The Inﬂuence of East Europe

and the Soviet West on the USSR 523

Tairov, Aleksandr, Chamber Theatre 581, 592

Tajikistan 354, 408

collectivisation in 423

and Commonwealth of Independent States

516

Tallinn, Estonia 525

Tambov province

communes 415

martial law (1917) 128

peasant uprising 161, 168

Tamm, I. E., physicist 559

Tannenberg, Battle of 96

Taraki, Nur Mohammed, Afghan Khalq

faction 311, 692, 693

Tarkovsky, Andrei 281, 624

Ivan’s Childhood 614

Tartu Peace Treaty (1920) 526

Tashkent 151

university 499

Tatarstan 518

referendum on independence (1992) 364

Tatlin, Vladimir 582

Tatyana Society, refugee relief

organisation 101

taxes

collective responsibility for, abolished

(1904) 88

inefﬁcient collection (1990s) 372

under NEP 391

Taylor, Frederick Winslow, ‘Taylorism’ 449

technology

attempt to stimulate (1950s–60s) 566–7

barriers to innovation 567

Bolshevik faith in 719

imported from West 403

lag in computing and electronics 572

levels of 386, 387, 392, 393

Soviet investment in 556

and spread of culture 626–7

see also science

television

documentary ﬁlms 630

and ﬁlm industry 624

imported soap operas 631

political centrism in 703

‘Temporary Statute of Military Censorship’

(by martial law regime) 99

Tereshchenko, Mikhail Ivanovich (1886–1956),

minister in Provisional Government

107

835

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