Stephenson M. Patriot Battles. How the War of Independence Was Fought
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notes 359
Loyalists, religious pacifists, and seamen would have to be deducted.” The War for
America, p. 29.
83. Howard H. Peckham, The Toll of Independence, p. 133.
84. Higginbotham, The War of American Independence, p. 389. Higginbotham does not
give a printed source for the Peckham number.
85. Jay Luvaas, ed. and trans., Frederick the Great on the Art of War, p. 75.
86. The returns for March 1777 have been lost. The numbers in this section draw
almost exclusively on Lesser, The Sinews of Independence, p. xxxi.
87. Lee Kennett, The French Forces in America, 1780–1783, p. 59.
88. Ibid., p. 20.
89. Ibid., p. 23.
90. Ibid., p. 24.
91. Ibid., p. 28.
92. Ibid., p. 39.
93. Richard M. Ketchum, Victory at Yorktown, p. 168.
2. lobsterbacks: the british soldier
1. Higginbotham, The War of American Independence, p. 16.
2. Benson Bobrick, Angel in the Whirlwind, p. 327.
3. Stephen Brumwell, Redcoats, p. 2.
4. Richard Holmes, Redcoat, p. 139.
5. Roy Porter, English Society in the 18th Century, p. 315.
6. Ibid., p. 130.
7. Ibid., p. 334.
8. Sylvia R. Frey, The British Soldier in America, p. 15.
9. Brumwell, Redcoats, p. 56.
10. Macksey, The War for America, p. 5.
11. Edward E. Curtis, The British Army in the American Revolution, p. 76.
12. Balderston and Syrett, The Lost War, p. 62.
13. Neimeyer, America Goes to War, p. 126.
14. Gunther E. Rothenberg, The Art of Warfare in the Age of Napoleon, p. 13.
15. Sir Charles Jenkinson to Captain Bennett, 26 February 1780; in Curtis, The British
Army, p. 62.
16. Ibid., p. 62.
17. Frey, The British Soldier, p. 6.
18. Ibid., p. 23–26.
19. Ibid., pp. 12–18.
20. Holmes, Redcoat, p. 54.
21. Brumwell, Redcoats, p. 73.
22. Luvaas, Frederick the Great, p. 314.
23. Correlli Barnett, Britain and Her Army, 1509–1970, p. 213.
notes 360
24. Curtis, The British Army, p. 1.
25. Twenty-nine thousand in Britain and 7,700 in Ireland. Macksey, The War for
America, p. 39.
26. Macksey, “Appendix: Troops in America (including Canada),” in The War for
America.
27. Rothenberg, The Art of Warfare, p. 61.
28. “Except for a minor war against the Caribes, the British Army had seen no action
for 12 to 13 years; relatively few soldiers were over 30 years of age.” Anthony D.
Darling, Red Coat and Brown Bess, p. 8.
29. Balderston and Syrett, The Lost War, p. 33.
30. Rhodehamel, The American Revolution, p. 68.
31. Captain John Bowater to the earl of Denbigh, 22 May 1777, New York; in Balderston
and Syrett, The Lost War, p. 126.
32. Philip R. N. Katcher, King George’s Army, 1775–1783, p. 135.
33. Rhodehamel, The American Revolution, p. 11.
34. David Chandler, The Art of Warfare in the Age of Marlborough, p. 69.
35. Curtis (The British Army, p. 3), for example, states that the 1st Foot Guards were the
Grenadier Guards.
36. Robert K. Wright Jr., The Continental Army, pp. 46–49.
37. Ibid., p. 87.
38. Ibid., p. 108.
39. Holmes, Redcoat, p. 48.
40. Ibid.
41. Edward J. Lowell, The Hessians, p. 18.
42. Elisha Bostwick of the 7th Connecticut describing Hessians captured at Trenton; in
Rhodehamel, The American Revolution, p. 512.
43. Neimeyer, America Goes to War, p. 54.
44. Rhodehamel, The American Revolution, p. 196.
45. Balderston and Syrett, The Lost War, p. 126.
46. Barnet Schecter, The Battle for New York, p. 129.
47. John J. Gallagher, The Battle of Brooklyn, 1776, p. 93.
48. Commager and Morris, The Spirit of Seventy-Six, p. 437.
49. Neimeyer, America Goes to War, pp. 55–56. Note: the figures quoted are only for
Hesse-Cassel men, the largest contingent of Britain’s German auxiliaries.
50. Ernst Kipping, The Hessian View of America 1776–1783, p. 10.
51. Higginbotham, The War of American Independence, p. 134.
52. Goodwin, The New Cambridge Modern History, vol. 8, p. 489.
53. Macksey, The War for America, p. 36.
54. Rhodehamel, The American Revolution, p. 241.
55. William H. Nelson, “The American Tory,” in Richard D. Brown, Major Problems,
p. 284.
56. Louis Birnbaum, Red Dawn at Lexington, p. 365.
notes 361
57. Rhodehamel, The American Revolution, p. 427.
58. Paul H. Smith, Loyalists and Redcoats, p. 122.
59. Ibid., pp. 45–46.
60. Ibid., p. 49.
61. Ibid., p. 73.
62. Ibid., p. 76.
63. Buchanan, The Road to Guilford Courthouse, p. 204.
64. Balderston and Syrett, The Lost War, p. 131.
65. Wallace Brown, The Good Americans, p. 117.
66. Quoted ibid., p. 135.
67. Quoted in Smith, Loyalists and Redcoats, p. 146.
68. Buchanan, The Road to Guilford Courthouse, p. 131.
69. Quoted in Scheer and Rankin, Rebels and Redcoats, p. 109.
70. Commager and Morris, The Spirit of Seventy-Six, p. 661.
71. Germain to William Knox, 31 December 1776, in Smith, Loyalists and Redcoats,
p. 43.
72. Rhodehamel, The American Revolution, pp. 755–56.
73. “He treats a Loyalist like his friend, embarked on the same cause, and if the meanest
of them has business with him, he attends them himself and makes them eat and
drink with him.” Rivington’s Gazette, 28 February 1781; Wallace Brown, The Good
Americans, p. 115.
74. Smith, Loyalists and Redcoats, p. 159.
3. “men of character”: the officer class
1. Richard D. Brown, Major Problems, p. 195.
2. Bolton, The Private Soldier Under Washington, p. 24.
3. Sheer and Rankin, Rebels and Redcoats, p. 82.
4. Ibid., p. 128.
5. Commager and Morris, The Spirit of Seventy-Six, p. 479.
6. Higginbothan, George Washington and the American Military Tradition, p. 53.
7. Gordon S. Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution, p. 118.
8. Dann, The Revolution Remembered, p. 116.
9. Higginbotham, The War of American Independence, p. 400.
10. Main, The Social Structure, p. 214.
11. Ibid.
12. Martin and Lender, A Respectable Army, p. 106.
13. Wright, The Continental Army, p. 81.
14. Holmes, Redcoat, p. 162.
15. Richard D. Brown, Major Problems, p. 208.
16. Frey, The British Soldier, p. 135.
notes 362
17. Holmes, Redcoat, p. 164.
18. J. A. Houlding, Fit for Service, p. 109.
19. Ibid.
20. Commager and Morris, The Spirit of Seventy-Six, p. 1233.
21. Rhodehamel, The American Revolution, p. 607.
22. Quoted in Godwin, The New Cambridge Modern History, vol. 8, p. 204.
23. Scheer and Rankin, Rebels and Redcoats, p. 457.
24. Royster, A Revolutionary People, p. 199.
25. Ibid., p. 91.
26. Curtis, The British Army, pp. 27–28.
27. Higginbotham, The War of American Independence, p. 207.
28. Royster, A Revolutionary People, p. 210.
29. Lieutenant Samuel Shaw, quoted ibid., p. 210.
30. Holmes, Redcoat, p. 287.
31. Brumwell, Redcoats, p. 90. The incident occurred in Nova Scotia in 1757.
32. Royster, A Revolutionary People, p. 201.
33. John Ellis, Armies in Revolution, p. 53.
34. Risch, Supplying Washington’s Army, p. 253.
35. Higginbotham, The War of American Independence, pp. 400–401.
36. Ibid., p. 401.
37. Royster, A Revolutionary People, p. 343.
38. Gouverneur Morris to John Jay, 1 January 1783; quoted ibid., p. 340.
4. what made men fight
1. Goodwin, The New Cambridge Modern History, vol. 8, p. 519.
2. Charles Patrick Neimeyer, America Goes to War, p. 8.
3. Ward, The War of the Revolution, p. 549.
4. Ibid., p. 295.
5. Martin, Narrative, p. 241.
6. Holmes, Redcoat, p. 179.
7. Martin, Narrative, p. 243.
8. Royster, A Revolutionary People at War, p. 19.
9. Ibid., p. 172.
10. Bolton, The Private Soldier, p. 161.
11. Royster, A Revolutionary People, p. 251.
12. Ibid., p. 226.
13. Bolton, The Private Soldier, p. 161.
14. Rhodehamel, The American Revolution, p. 171.
15. Frey, The British Soldier in America, p. 115.
16. Porter, English Society, p. 279.
notes 363
17. Frey, The British Soldier in America, p. 117.
18. Ibid.
19. Ibid.
20. Higginbotham, The War of American Independence, p. 104.
21. Royster, A Revolutionary People, p. 17.
22. Commager and Morris, The Spirit of Seventy-Six, p. 625.
23. Rhodehamel, The American Revolution, p. 332.
24. Commager and Morris, The Spirit of Seventy-Six, p. 600.
25. Rhodehamel, The American Revolution, p. 348.
26. Richard M. Ketchum, Victory at Yorktown, p. 253.
27. Holmes, Redcoat, p. 392.
28. Porter, English Society, p. 340.
29. Frey, The British Soldier, p. 117.
30. Luvaas, Frederick the Great on the Art of War, p. 78.
31. Frey, The British Soldier, p. 123.
32. Holmes, Redcoat, p. 213.
33. Richard M. Ketchum, Saratoga, p. 427.
34. Holmes, Redcoat, p. 214.
35. Frederick William, Baron von Steuben, Regulations for the Order and Discipline of
the Troops of the United States, p. 114.
36. Frey, The British Soldier, p. 128.
37. Luvaas, Frederick the Great, p. 110.
38. John Keegan and Richard Holmes, Soldiers, p. 54.
39. Holmes, Redcoat, p. 145.
40. Dann, The Revolution Remembered, p. 366.
41. Scheer and Rankin, Rebels and Redcoats, p. 223.
42. Frey, The British Soldier, p. 112.
43. P. E. Kopperman, “‘The Cheapest Pay’: Alcohol Abuse in the Eighteenth-Century
British Army,” Journal of Military History 40, no. 3 (July 1996): 449. Cited in
Brumwell, Redcoats, p. 105.
44. Holmes, Redcoat, p. 47.
45. Scheer and Rankin, Rebels and Redcoats, p. 60.
46. Rhodehamel, The American Revolution, p. 581.
47. Reported by Colonel Otho Williams, in ibid., p. 708.
48. Scheer and Rankin, Rebels and Redcoats, p. 462.
49. Ibid., p. 464.
50. Ward, The War of the Revolution, p. 92.
51. Luvaas, Frederick the Great, p. 77.
52. Curtis, The British Army, p. 28.
53. Holmes, Redcoat, p. 322.
54. Ibid., p. 323.
55. Scheer and Rankin, Rebels and Redcoats, p. 369.
notes 364
56. Dann, The Revolution Remembered, p. 376.
57. Porter, English Society, p. 141.
58. Gordon S. Wood, The Radicalism of the American Revolution, p. 16.
59. Frey, The British Soldier, pp. 87–90.
60. Dann, The Revolution Remembered, p. 410.
61. Bolton, The Private Soldier, p. 173.
62. Neimeyer, America Goes to War, p. 154.
63. Ebenezer Denny’s journal, 1–15 May 1781; in Rhodehamel, The American
Revolution, p. 679.
64. Washington to Lee, 9 July 1779; quoted in Scheer and Rankin, Rebels and Redcoats,
p. 359.
65. Ibid., p. 359.
5. feeding the beast
1. Commager and Morris, The Spirit of Seventy-Six, p. 807.
2. Ibid., p. 808.
3. Risch, Supplying Washington’s Army, p. 208.
4. Ibid., p. 75.
5. Ibid., p. 82.
6. Ibid., p. 190.
7. Oscar Reiss, Medicine and the American Revolution, p. 7.
8. Risch, Supplying Washington’s Army, p. 193.
9. Curtis, The British Army, p. 89.
10. Commager and Morris, The Spirit of Seventy-Six, p. 837.
11. Curtis, The British Army, p. 94.
12. Martin, Narrative, p. 22.
13. Risch, Supplying Washington’s Army, p. 198.
14. Curtis, The British Army, p. 95.
15. Frey, The British Soldier, p. 33.
16. Reiss, Medicine, p. 9.
17. Risch, Supplying Washington’s Army, p. 218.
18. Rhodehamel, The American Revolution, p. 401.
19. Martin, Narrative, p. 90.
20. Ward, War of the Revolution, p. 613.
21. Commager and Morris, The Spirit of Seventy-Six, p. 200. The unfortunate canine
was Captain Dearborn’s pet.
22. Scheer and Rankin, Rebels and Redcoats, p. 119.
23. Ward, The War of the Revolution, p. 825.
24. Scheer and Rankin, Rebels and Redcoats, p. 417.
25. Harold Peterson, The Book of the Continental Soldier, p. 149.
notes 365
26. George C. Neumann and Frank Kravic, Collector’s Illustrated Encyclopedia of the
American Revolution, p. 94.
27. Macksey, The War for America, p. 66. David Chandler in The Art of Warfare in the
Age of Marlborough makes the point that the rise in the size of European armies
in the eighteenth century made staggering demands on commissaries. Most
armies aimed to issue each man with about two pounds of bread each day. An
army of 60,000 would need approximately 100 million pounds of bread for the
six-month campaign season. Only a few areas of Europe could sustain that level of
consumption, and this is one of the major factors in explaining the concentration
of campaigning in northern France, the Spanish Netherlands, Westphalia, parts of
the Rhineland, and Lombardy—some of the most productive areas of Europe.
28. Curtis, The British Army, p. 103.
29. Ibid. p. 97.
30. Ibid., p. 130.
31. Ibid., p. 125.
6. the things they carried: weapons, equipment, and clothing
1. Harold L. Peterson, The Book of the Continental Soldier, p. 12.
2. Risch, Supplying Washington’s Army, p. 350.
3. Ibid., p. 348.
4. J. A. Houlding, Fit for Service, p. 41.
5. Peterson, Arms and Armor, p. 183. One of the myths Peterson dispels is that American
gunsmiths were too frightened to “sign” their products in case of a British victory.
In fact, many Committee of Safety muskets were identified by their makers.
6. Dann, The Revolution Remembered, pp. 124–5.
7. Commager and Morris, The Spirit of Seventy-Six, p. 208.
8. Anthony D. Darling in Red Coat and Brown Bess cites H. L. Blackmore, British
Military Firearms, 1650–1850, p. 45.
9. Darling cites H. L. Blackmore.
10. Lawrence E. Babits, A Devil of a Whipping, pp. 13 and 165. Babits achieved these
results on two test firings, each on windless days with unfouled bores and new flints.
11. Gallagher, The Battle of Brooklyn, 1776, p. 43fn.
12. Babits, A Devil of a Whipping, pp. 103–4.
13. Major General B. P. Hughes, Firepower, p. 26.
14. Dowling, Red Coat and Brown Bess, p. 11.
15. Hughes, Firepower, p. 27.
16. Rothenberg, The Art of Warfare, p. 65.
17. Chandler, The Art of Warfare, p. 131.
18. Lieutenant Colonel Dave Grossman, On Killing, p. 12.
notes 366
19. Houlding, Fit for Service, p. 167.
20. Luvaas, Frederick the Great on the Art of War, p. 78.
21. Robert L. O’Connell, Of Arms and Men, p. 158.
22. Author’s correspondence with Clay Smith, gunsmith at Colonial Williamsburg.
23. Scheer and Rankin, Rebels and Redcoats, p. 67.
24. Gallagher, The Battle of Brooklyn, p. 125.
25. Peterson, The Book of the Continental Soldier, p. 204.
26. Author’s correspondence with Clay Smith.
27. Gallagher, The Battle of Brooklyn, p. 118.
28. Babits, A Devil of a Whipping, p. 18.
29. John Buchanan, The Road to Guilford Courthouse, p. 217.
30. Babits, A Devil of a Whipping, p. 20.
31. Peterson, Arms and Armor, p. 200.
32. John W. Wright, “The Rifle in the American Revolution,” The American Historical
Review 2, no. 29, pp. 292–299.
33. Peter Force, American Archives (1839–53), 5th series, vol. 2, p. 1247.
34. Ward, The War of the Revolution, p. 108.
35. Dann, The Revolution Remembered, p. 409.
36. Ferguson’s design owed much to John Wilmore’s mechanism of the late seventeenth
century as well as that of Isaac de la Chaumette, a Huguenot living and working
in Britain who patented his system in 1704. Ferguson was also indebted to John
Warsop’s 1720 breech plug design. “Ferguson’s key improvements were completely
piercing the breech from top to bottom; one turn to open or close . . . The breech
plug could not be accidentally removed or dropped in heat of combat.” (Lance
Klein, “This Barbarous Weapon,” Muzzle Blasts 5, no. 1.
37. Peterson, Arms and Armor, p. 219.
38. Klein, “This Barbarous Weapon.”
39. Glenys Crocker, The Gunpowder Industry, p. 5.
40. Orlando W. Stephenson, “The Supply of Gunpowder in 1776,” The American
Historical Review 30, no. 2, p. 274.
41. Risch, Supplying Washington’s Army, p. 341.
42. Commager and Morris, The Spirit of Seventy-Six, p. 776.
43. Bolton, The Private Soldier, p. 118.
44. Commager and Morris, The Spirit of Seventy-Six, p. 618.
45. Peterson, The Book of the Continental Soldier, p. 64.
46. Houlding, Fit for Service, p. 148.
47. Commager and Morris, The Spirit of Seventy-Six, p. 1083.
48. Peterson, The Book of the Continental Soldier, p. 61.
49. Barnett, Britain and Her Army, p. 128.
50. Luvaas, Frederick the Great, p. 78 regarding firepower; the quote about the bayonet
is on p. 147.
51. Felix Reichman, “The Pennsylvania Rifle,” p. 6
notes 367
52. Earl J. Hess, The Union Soldier in Battle: Enduring the Ordeal of Combat, p. 51.
53. Commager and Morris, The Spirit of Seventy-Six, p. 576.
54. Grossman, On Killing, p. 123.
55. Rhodehamel, The American Revolution, p. 269.
56. Ibid., p. 353.
57. “These redcoats were masters of the bayonet, and they employed it with grim
effectiveness” (Higginbotham, The War of American Independence, p. 63). “A lack
of precision made the Brown Bess less useful as a gun than as a stock for a bayonet.
Indeed, the ‘white weapon’ was much the most effective British arm throughout
the war.” (Ward, The War of the Revolution, p. 29).
58. Houlding, Fit for Service, p. 261, fn10.
59. Rhodehamel, The American Revolution, p. 341.
60. Hughes, Firepower, p. 11.
61. Chandler, The Art of Warfare, p. 83.
62. Scheer and Rankin, Rebels and Redcoats, p. 432.
63. Peterson, The Book of the Continental Soldier, p. 102.
64. Epaphras Hoyt, A Treatise on the Military Art (1798), quoted in Peterson, Arms and
Armor, p. 263.
65. Commager and Morris, The Spirit of Seventy-Six, p. 419.
66. Higginbotham, The War of American Independence, p. 305.
67. Wright, The Continental Army, p. 115.
68. Bowman, The Morale of the American Revolutionary Army, p. 20.
69. Risch, Supplying Washington’s Army, p. 285.
70. Ibid., p. 298.
71. Ward, The War of the Revolution, p. 551.
72. Victor Neuberg, Gone for a Soldier, p. 99.
73. Risch, Supplying Washington’s Army, p. 285.
74. Commager and Morris, The Spirit of Seventy-Six, p. 125.
75. Rhodehamel, The American Revolution, p. 106.
76. Commager and Morris, The Spirit of Seventy-Six, p. 1197.
77. Rhodehamel, The American Revolution, p. 321.
78. Ward, The War of the Revolution, p. 779. Is there something a little fishy about this
anecdote? Ward cites as his source Charles Stedman’s The History . . . of the American
War, which was published in London in 1794. Stedman was a Loyalist historian
with a particular ax to grind. The action (which Stedman claims resulted in 300
Loyalist deaths, a massive number by the standards of the time) is not recorded in
Howard H. Peckham’s meticulously researched listing of every engagement and its
resulting casualties, The Toll of Independence.
79. Reiss, Medicine, p. 200.
80. Commager and Morris, The Spirit of Seventy-Six, p. 837.
81. Frey, The British Soldier, p. 35.
82. Reiss, Medicine, p. 11.
notes 368
83. John Lancaster, American Heritage: History of the American Revolution, p. 107 (2003
illustrated edition).
84. Richard M. Ketchum, Decisive Day, p. 154.
85. This list comes from an exhibit at Bunker Hill National Historic Site.
86. For example, the full kit, including musket, of a soldier of the French expeditionary
force to America of 1780 weighed just over sixty pounds (Kennett, The French
Forces in America, p. 24).
87. Philip J. Haythornthwaite, Weapons and Equipment of the Napoleonic Wars, p. 127.
7. the big guns: artillery
1. Commager and Morris, The Spirit of Seventy-Six, p. 1107.
2. Scheer and Rankin, Rebels and Redcoats, pp. 53–54.
3. Dann, The Revolution Remembered, p. 237.
4. Hughes, Firepower, p. 32.
5. Scheer and Rankin, Rebels and Redcoats, p. 56.
6. Martin, Narrative, p. 113.
7. Ibid., p. 206.
8. Commager and Morris, The Spirit of Seventy-Six, p. 1105.
9. The Madras Artillery of the Honourable East India Company tests carried out
between 1810 and 1817, cited in Hughes, Firepower, p. 40.
10. Haythornthwaite, Weapons and Equipment of the Napoleonic Wars, p. 60.
11. Holmes, Redcoat, p. 244.
12. Ibid., p. 244.
13. Rothenberg, The Art of Warfare, p. 77.
14. Dr. James Thacher, Military Journal of the American Revolution, 1775–1783, p. 284.
15. Haythornthwaite, Weapons and Equipment of the Napoleonic Wars, p. 76.
16. Risch, Supplying Washington’s Army, pp. 357–59.
8. the sanguinary business: wounds, disease, and medical care
1. Matthew Naythons, M.D., The Face of Mercy: A Photographic History of Medicine at
War, p. 232.
2. A test carried out for this book by Dr. Martin Fackler, Letterman Army Institute
of Research, Division of Military Trauma Research, Presidio of San Francisco, 18
March 2004.
3. Holmes, Redcoat, p. 253.
4. Thacher, Military Journal, p. 113.
5. The Napoleonic War Journal of Captain Thomas Henry Browne, 1807–1816, quoted
in Holmes, Redcoat, p. 254.
6. Commager and Morris, The Spirit of Seventy-Six, pp. 1111–12.