Sperling E. The Tibet-China Conflict: History and Polemics

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 4HE4IBET#HINA#ONmICT 

3IMILARLYEXAGGERATEDISTHESIGNIlCANCEOFTHETITLESTHATWEREGRANTED

TO 4IBETANS BY THE -ING 4HESE TITLES WHICH HAVE ALREADY BEEN NOTED

ABOVEWEREHONORSTHATCONVEYEDPRESTIGEANDRECOGNITIONBUTTHEYDID

NOTCONFERPOLITICALAUTHORITY)NPOINTOFFACTTHEGRANTOFTITLESIN#HINA

TOFOREIGNERSWASNOTUNUSUALITWASAWELLKNOWNTOOLOFSTATECRAFT"UT

INTHECASEOFTHREE4IBETANHIERARCHSWHOWEREACCORDEDTHETITLEFAWANG

ORDHARMARAJA#HINESECOMMENTATORSESSENTIALLYPRESENTTHEBESTOWALOF

THESETITLESASBOTHAMARKOF#HINESESOVEREIGNTYANDAPOLITICALMEASURE

BYWHICHTHE-INGEXERTEDCONTROLOVER4IBETAN"UDDHISM



4HESETHREE

FAWANG WERE HONORED AS SUCH BECAUSE THEY TRAVELED TO THE -ING COURT

WHERE THEY PERFORMED RITES AND CONFERRED INITIATIONS UPON THE EMPEROR

SPECIlCALLY-ING#HENGZUࣔګలAND-ING8UANZONGࣔ৙ࡲ4HUS

THEIRPRESTIGEANDPOSITIONSWEREESTABLISHEDWELLBEFORETHEYEVERWENTTO

#HINA,ESTTHEREBEANYDOUBTABOUTTHEAUTHORITYOFTHE-INGCOURTIN

THESEMATTERSTHEREISTHEAFOREMENTIONEDCASEOF4SONGKHAPA"LOBZANG

GRAGSPA ONE OF THE MOST IMPORTANT lGURES OF

THEPERIOD)NVITEDTOTHECOURTOF#HENGZUHE

SIMPLYREFUSEDTOGOAND SENT ADISCIPLEINSTEAD

WHOLATERBECAMEONEOFTHETHREEFAWANG

!S FOR THE LESSER TITLES AWARDED 4IBETANS

DURING THE -ING MANY OF THESE WERE GIVEN TO

lGURES ACTIVE ALONG THE -ING4IBETAN FRONTIER

"UTOTHERSWEREAWARDEDTO lGURES INSIDE4IBET

WHOWERESTILLNOTSUBORDINATETOTHE-INGCOURT

4HEREISNOINDICATIONATALLIN4IBETANSOURCESORIN#HINESESOURCES

FOR THAT MATTERTHAT ANY OF THOSE INSIDE4IBET EXERTED POWER OR ACTED

ON BEHALF OF THE -ING COURT "LUNTLY PUT THERE WAS NO -ING POLITICAL

AUTHORITY OVER 4IBETNO ORDINANCES LAWS TAXES ETC IMPOSED INSIDE

4IBETBYTHE-ING

)FTHESUBSTANTIVESIGNIlCANCEOFTHESE-INGSTRUCTURESISMISREPRESENTED

IN #HINESE WRITINGS THE 1ING INSTITUTION OF THE 'OLDEN 5RN IS NOT

ACCORDEDITSTRUEIMPORTIN4IBETANWRITINGS!SWEHAVESEENTHEUSEOF

THEURNWASIMPOSEDINTHEWAKEOFTHE'URKHAWARWITH4IBETATTHEEND

OFTHEEIGHTEENTHCENTURY4HE1INGHADSLOWLYTAKENONANINCREASINGLY

DOMINANTROLEIN4IBETSOMUCHSOTHATBYTHEENDOFTHEEIGHTEENTHCENTURY

THESUBORDINATEPLACEOF4IBETWITHINTHE1ING%MPIREWASBEYONDDISPUTE

4HEMEMOIRSOFONEOFTHE4IBETANMINISTERSINVOLVEDINTHE'URKHAWAR

ANDIMPLICATEDINITSESCALATIONARETELLING3UMMONEDTO"EIJINGFORAN

4HESETITLESxWERE

HONORSTHATCONVEYED

PRESTIGEANDRECOGNITION

BUTTHEYDIDNOTCONFER

POLITICALAUTHORITY

  %LLIOT3PERLING

INQUESTHEMAKESCLEARINHISOWNACCOUNTTHEFACTHEWASUNAMBIGUOUSLY

ASUBJECTOFTHE1INGEMPERORWHOMHEDESCRIBESAShTHEDHARMARAJALORD

OFALLBELOWHEAVENANDABOVEEARTHTHE-A¶JUSR

eEMPEROR



)TISSIMPLYNOT

POSSIBLETOCHALK1ING4IBETANRELATIONSUPTOAPRIESTPATRONRELATIONSHIP

ONAPERSONALLEVELWITHNOELEMENTOFPOLITICALSUBORDINATION

4HE USE OF THE 'OLDEN 5RN IS PARTICULARLY CONTENTIOUS BECAUSE IT

REPRESENTSTHEINTRUSIONOF1INGAUTHORITYINTOTHESELECTIONOFIMPORTANT

LAMASMOSTPROMINENTLYTHE$ALAI,AMAS.EVERTHELESS IT IS CLEAR FROM

4IBETANSOURCESTHATITSUSEWASREQUIREDFORSOMETIMEATLEAST



)NTHE

EARLY NINETEENTH CENTURY A SURVEY OF ALL CONTEMPORARY INCARNATIONS WAS

COMPILEDTHATSPECIlEDWHICHONESHADACTUALLYBEENSELECTEDBYMEANS

OFTHE'OLDEN5RN



4HESURVEYLISTMAKESITCLEARTHATTHE'OLDEN5RN

WASNOTLIMITEDTOTHE$ALAI,AMAANDTHE0ANCHEN,AMA4HEFOURTEENTH

+ARMAPA 4HEGMCHOG RDORJE IS ALSO NOTED AS HAVING BEEN CHOSEN

THROUGHITSUSE



4HERECANBELITTLEDOUBTTHATTHE1INGHADTHEAUTHORITY

TOIMPOSETHEUSEOFTHE'OLDEN5RN.ORCANTHEREBEANYDOUBTABOUT

THE REAL AUTHORITY IN 4IBETAN AFFAIRS EXERTED BY THE OFlCES AND OFlCIALS

THAT THE1ING POSTED IN4IBET )TIS OF COURSE TRUE THAT FOR MOST OF THE

NINETEENTHCENTURY1INGAUTHORITYTHEREWASWEAK"UTTHATAUTHORITYWAS

STILLACKNOWLEDGEDBYTHE$ALAI,AMASGOVERNMENTUNTILWHENTHE

THIRTEENTH$ALAI,AMADECLARED4IBETTOBEFREEOF#HINA

)TSHOULDBECLEARTHATMUCHOFWHATISCLAIMEDBYBOTHSIDESINTHE

4IBET#HINACONmICTCOMESDOWNTORATHERRECENTCONSTRUCTIONSOFHISTORY

"EARINGTHIS IN MINDIT MAY BEUSEFUL TOLOOKFURTHER ATSOME OFTHESE

CONSTRUCTIONSWITHINTHECONTEXTOFTHELARGERISSUESTHATTHEYBOTHRESPOND

TOANDREmECT!GLANCEATFOUROFTHEMOREOBVIOUSINSTANCESINWHICHTHE

HISTORICALRECORDISATVARIANCEWITHCURRENTASSERTIONSOUGHTTOILLUSTRATETO

SOMEEXTENTTHEFACTORSATWORK4HESEHAVELARGELYBEENEXAMINEDABOVE

BUTADDITIONALCOMMENTSABOUTTHEMASTHEYAPPEARSETAGAINSTOTHERISSUES

OFCULTUREPOLITICSORIDENTITYSHOULDSHEDMORELIGHTONTHEWAYINWHICH

THEYHAVEBECOMESUCHCONSIDERABLEIMPEDIMENTSTOATTEMPTSATDEALING

WITHTHEISSUEOF4IBETSSTATUS

)NTEGRAL0ARTOF#HINAOR6ASSAL3TATE

.OTONLYISTHENOTIONTHAT4IBETHASBEENANINTEGRALPARTOF#HINASINCE

THE9UANDYNASTYATWENTIETHCENTURYIDEAINTOTHESTHEPREDOMINANT

VIEWWASTHAT4IBETSRELATIONSWITHLATEIMPERIAL#HINAWEREBESTDESCRIBED

AS THOSE OF A VASSAL SOMETHING QUITE OPPOSITE TO AN INTEGRAL PART OF A

COUNTRY!SWEHAVEALREADYSEEN#HINESEWRITERSWELLINTOTHEEARLYYEARS

 4HE4IBET#HINA#ONmICT 

OFTHE02#SAWTHEFULLIMPLEMENTATIONOF#HINESESOVEREIGNTYIN4IBET

COMINGONLYAFTERTHE'URKHAWAR4HISISSTARKLYDIFFERENTFROMWHATHAS

NOWBECOMERECEIVEDWISDOMINTHE02#NAMELYTHAT4IBETSPLACEASAN

INTEGRALPARTOF#HINADATESTOTHE9UAN-OREOVEREVENWHENSPEAKING

OF THE 1ING PERIOD AND4IBETS STATUS UNDER THE 1ING THE TERMS USED

BY THESE EARLIER WRITERS CANNOT BE SAID TO POINT TO SOMETHING hINTEGRALv

TOTHE#HINESESTATE2ATHERTHEYPOINTTOA4IBETTHATISATRIBUTARYORA

DEPENDENCYIESOMETHINGTHATCANNOTBECALLEDhINTEGRALv4HISISNOT

TO SAY THAT4IBET WAS NOT SUBJECT TO THE 1ING OR THAT THE INTERNATIONAL

COMMUNITYDURINGTHE1INGPERIODDIDNOTACCEPTTHATFACT"UTTHE1ING

STATEINITSDAYWASVIEWEDASANEMPIREASINDEEDITWASANEMPIRE!ND

THE TERMS THAT WE SEEBEING USED TO CHARACTERIZE4IBET WITHIN THE1ING

REALMSARETERMSTHATSPEAKOFAPARTOFANEMPIRENOTANhINTEGRALvPART

OF#HINA4HE1INGRULERSMAINTAINEDSOMEVERYCLEARBOUNDARIESBETWEEN

THEIRRULEOF#HINAONTHEONEHANDANDTHEIRRULEOFREGIONSSUCHAS4IBET

OR-ONGOLIAONTHEOTHER)NDEEDBOTHREGIONSFELLUNDERTHEJURISDICTION

OF THE ,IFANYUAN ⧛㮾䰷 COMMONLY TRANSLATED AS h#OURT OF #OLONIAL

!FFAIRSvABUREAUTHATALSOHANDLED1INGRELATIONSWITH2USSIAINTOTHE

NINETEENTH CENTURY 7HEN :HAO %RFENG ᎓ዿ᠆ THE LAST MAJOR 1ING

OFlCIALDEALING WITH4IBETAN AFFAIRS TOOKUP THE MILITARY PACIlCATION OF

THEEASTERN3INO4IBETANBORDERLANDSHEDESCRIBEDHISENTERPRISETHEREAS

ACOLONIALONECOMPARABLETOTHOSEOFTHE"RITISH&RENCH*APANESEAND

!MERICANSIN!SIAAND!FRICA



4HETERMSUSEDTODESCRIBE4IBETUNDERTHE1INGFANBANGᢋ߶FANSHU

ᢋ᥆ETCAREGENERALLYTRANSLATEDAShVASSALSTATEvORSOMETHINGSIMILAR





! RECENT ARTICLE MAINTAINS THAT FANSHU ARE NOT LIKE OTHER TRIBUTEPAYING

REGIONSINTHATTHEFORMERFALLUNDERTHEFULLSOVEREIGNADMINISTRATIONOF

#HINA



BUTTHATISNOTTHEPOINTTHOUGHANIMPERIALPOWERCANEXERCISE

FULLSOVEREIGNRULEOVERASUBJECTCOUNTRYTHISINITSELFDOESNOTMAKETHAT

COUNTRYANINALIENABLEORINTEGRALPARTOFTHEIMPERIALCOUNTRY

3ETTINGASIDETHEISSUEOFFANSHUHOWEVERITISSTILLMANIFESTLYCLEAR

THAT#HINESEWRITERSHAVECOMETOVIEWPREEIGHTEENTHCENTURY4IBETAS

lRMLYUNDER#HINESESOVEREIGNTYONLYDURINGTHELASTlVEDECADES4HIS

CHANGE HAS BEEN PART OF A LARGERENTERPRISE OFDElNING #HINA AND THE

#HINESE PEOPLE INA NEWWAY ONE INWHICH ELEMENTSOF PAST IMPERIAL

DOMINATIONHAVEBEENSUPPRESSEDANDPREVIOUSLYSUBJECTPEOPLESlTTED

INTOTHECATEGORYOFhNATIONALMINORITYv)NTHECASEOF4IBETWHERETHE

HISTORICALMEMORYENCOMPASSESASENSEOFNATIONHOODANDAKNOWLEDGE

  %LLIOT3PERLING

OFATIMEWHEN4IBETANSPRESIDEDOVERA4IBETANSTATEADMINISTEREDBYA

4IBETAN BUREAUCRACYUSING4IBETANLANGUAGE ADMINISTRATIVEDOCUMENTS

ANDTOOLSTHEPERSISTENCEOFTENSIONSISNOTSURPRISING4HECATEGORYOF

hNATIONALMINORITYvULTIMATELYREDUCES4IBETANSTOAPARWITHAVARIETY

OFOTHERGROUPSMANYNUMBERINGJUSTTENSOFTHOUSANDSORFEWERAND

HAVINGNOSIMILARNATIONALHISTORYORCONSCIOUSNESS9ETTHISDElNITION

OF THE #HINESE NATION HAS BEEN CREATED AND SUCCESSFULLY INCULCATED IN

THEGENERALPOPULATIONOFTHE02#.OWREGARDLESSOFPASTHISTORYMOST

#HINESE DO INDEED FEEL THAT4IBET BELONGS TO #HINA AND HAS BEEN AN

INSEPARABLE PART OF THE COUNTRY SINCE ANCIENT

TIMES

4HISCULTURALSENSEOFWHATISRIGHTLY#HINAS

ISALSOBOUNDUPWITHTHENOTIONTHATANYATTEMPT

TO SEPARATE 4IBET FROM #HINA IS ULTIMATELY THE

RESULT OF FOREIGN MACHINATIONS OR INCITEMENT

DERIVED FROM EARLIER IMPERIALIST POLICIES THAT

SOUGHTTODIVIDEUP#HINA4HESENSEOFPOPULAR

GRIEVANCE THIS PLAYS ON HAS COMMONLY BEEN

MARSHALED IN BOOKS AND ESSAYS POINTING TO THE

IMPERIALIST PROVENANCE OF 4IBETAN INDEPENDENCE



 )NDEED THE #HINESE

RESPONSETONON#HINESEWRITERSANDSCHOLARSWHOSEE4IBETASPOSSESSING

A HISTORICAL IDENTITYSEPARATE FROM#HINA HAS BEEN TO TAR THEM WITHTHE

COLONIALISTLABEL"UTTHEFACTIS4IBETWASHISTORICALLYNOTAPARTOF#HINA

RATHER4IBETSSUBORDINATERELATIONSHIPTOTHE1INGISMOREAPTLYDESCRIBED

WITHTHE FEUDAL TERMINOLOGYOFVASSALAGETHAT#HINESE WRITERS PREVIOUSLY

USEDFORIT

4HE0RIEST0ATRON2ELATIONSHIP

4HEPRIESTPATRONRELATIONSHIPCOEXISTEDWITH4IBETSPOLITICALSUBORDINATION

TO THE 9UAN AND THE 1ING4HERE IS SIMPLY NOTHING TO SUBSTANTIATE THE

NOTIONTHATTHEPRIESTPATRONRELATIONSHIPEXCLUDEDPOLITICALDOMINATION



)TEXISTEDASWEHAVESEENBETWEEN4IBETANHIERARCHSANDEMPERORSOFTHE

9UAN-INGAND1INGDYNASTIESINCLUDINGPERIODSINWHICHTHE-INGAND

1ING DID NOT EXERCISE AUTHORITY OVER4IBET .EVERTHELESS IT HAS BECOME

COMMONFOR4IBETANEXILECOMMENTATORSTOSEETHERELATIONSHIPASUNIQUELY

PERSONALANDIDEASOF4IBETSSUBORDINATIONTO9UANOR-INGEMPERORSASA

MISUNDERSTANDINGOFTHATFACT

(ERETOOWEHAVEACULTURALNOTIONATWORKASANATIONALIDEAISDElNED

ANEW)NTHISCASETHEPROCESSISACOMPLEXONEINVOLVINGINPART4IBETAN

#HINESEWRITERSHAVE

COMETOVIEWPRE

EIGHTEENTHCENTURY4IBET

ASlRMLYUNDER#HINESE

SOVEREIGNTYONLYDURING

THELASTlVEDECADES

 4HE4IBET#HINA#ONmICT 

INTERACTIONWITHTHE7ESTANDTHEASSIMILATIONOFMODERNIDEASABOUT4IBET

ASANEXCEPTIONALREALMOFAUNIQUELYRELIGIOUSCULTURE/NESEESTHISIDEA

DEVELOPINGTHROUGHANINCREASINGDEEMPHASISAMONGTHEEXILELEADERSHIP

ONTHEhNATIONALvASPECTSOFWHATHADONCEBEEN

A MOVEMENT FOR INDEPENDENCE AND THAT TO BE

HONEST REMAINS AS SUCH AMONG MOST 4IBETAN

EXILES AND ACTIVISTS !T THE HIGHER LEVELS OF THE

4IBETANGOVERNMENTINEXILEITHASDEVOLVEDINTO

AMOVEMENTFORCULTURALPRESERVATION!SIFTAKING

ACUEFROM7ESTERNFANTASIESOF4IBETASTHEPLACE

WHEREINALLISCENTEREDAROUNDSPIRITUALPURSUITS

THE4IBETANEXILEAUTHORITIESAREINCREASINGLYGIVEN

TOSPEAKINGOF4IBETLARGELYAS A GLOBALRELIGIOUS

ANDSPIRITUALRESOURCEFORWHICHINDEPENDENCEASANATIONISUNIMPORTANT

4HEPRESENTEXILEPRIMEMINISTER3AMDHONG2INPOCHETOLDTHE.EW9ORK

4IMESASMUCHIN*ULY



!SARESULTONEENCOUNTERSANINCREASINGLY

MUDDLED VIEW OF THE NATURE OF 3INO4IBETAN RELATIONS IN SOME QUARTERS

OF THE4IBETAN EXILE LEADERSHIP !GAINST THIS BACKGROUND THE IMPETUS TO

MAKERELIGIONTHEOVERWHELMINGCOREOF4IBETSIDENTITYAGAINPARTIALLY

INRESPONSETONON4IBETANEXPECTATIONSWOULDSEEMTOHAVEFOSTEREDAN

INABILITYINSOMEQUARTERSTOUNDERSTANDTHEHARDPOLITICALFACTSOF4IBETS

TIESWITHTHE9UANAND1INGCOURTS

4HE'OLDEN5RN

4HE'OLDEN5RNWASUSEDTOSELECT4IBETANINCARNATIONSDURINGTHE1ING

BUT ITS INVOCATION IN THE RECOGNITION OF CONTEMPORARY INCARNATIONS IS A

SELECTIVE RESPONSE TO POLITICAL EXIGENCIES )N SPITE OF EXILE INTERPRETATIONS

TOTHECONTRARYTHE'OLDEN5RNLOTTERYWASUSEDIN4IBETINTHECASESOFA

NUMBEROFINCARNATIONS"UTITSREVIVALASAPRESENTDAYDEVICECANNOTBE

SEENASANYTHINGBUTCYNICAL4HEUSEOFTHE'OLDEN5RNWASNOTCONSTANT

BYTHELATE1INGANDITSUBSEQUENTLYFELLINTODISUSE)TWASAFTERALLA

1INGDEVICEIMPOSEDONTHE4IBETAN"UDDHISTAUTHORITIES/NECANNOTBUT

NOTESOMEWHATWRYLYTHATAFTERALMOSTACENTURYOFRHETORICONTHEPART

OFBOTHTHE2EPUBLICANANDTHE3OCIALISTGOVERNMENTSOF#HINADEPICTING

THEPOLICIESOFTHE1INGUPPERSTRATAASDIVISIVEANDOPPRESSIVETOWARDTHE

BORDERLANDORMINORITYPEOPLESTHE02#HASCHOSENTORESURRECTTHISONE

PARTICULAR1INGINSTITUTIONSPECIlCALLYWITHREGARDTOTHERECOGNITIONOF

THE0ANCHEN,AMAMAINTAININGTHATITISABSOLUTELYNECESSARYINCHOOSING

AN INCARNATION )T GOES WITHOUT SAYING THAT THERE HAS NOT BEEN A RUSH

4HEREISSIMPLYNOTHING

TOSUBSTANTIATETHE

NOTIONTHATTHEPRIEST

PATRONRELATIONSHIP

EXCLUDEDPOLITICAL

DOMINATION

  %LLIOT3PERLING

TO RESTOREANY OTHER1ING INSTITUTIONSACROSS MODERN #HINA "UT GIVEN

WHATWEKNOWABOUTTHEUSEOFTHE'OLDEN5RNITISINTERESTINGTONOTE

THAT ALTHOUGH THE FOURTEENTH +ARMAPA WAS RECOGNIZED THROUGH THE USE

OFTHE'OLDEN5RNATTHEBEGINNINGOFTHENINETEENTHCENTURYALLREPORTS

OF THE RECOGNITION AND ENTHRONEMENT OF THE SEVENTEENTH +ARMAPA IN

INDICATETHAT THIS WASNOTTHECASE WITH HIM



4HE REVIVEDUSE OF

THE'OLDEN5RNISMEANTTOIMPARTLEGITIMACYTO

02#CONTROLOVERTHEINCARNATIONOFHIGHLAMAS

BYCREATINGTHEPERCEPTIONOFHISTORICALCONTINUITY

WITHAPARTICULAREYETO02# SUPERVISIONOFTHE

RECOGNITIONOFTHE$ALAI,AMASNEXTINCARNATION

4HE USE OF THE 'OLDEN 5RN IS ONE OF THE FEW

ELEMENTS OF IMPERIAL DYNASTIC RULE THAT CAN BE

CALLEDONTOREINFORCETHEMODERN#HINESENOTION

THAT#HINASCENTRALGOVERNMENTSENJOYEDPRIMACYIN4IBETANAFFAIRSFROM

THE9UANPERIODUPTOTHEPRESENT4HENOTIONTHAT4IBETSOMEHOWWARRANTS

THERESTORATIONOFTHISELEMENTOF1INGRULEISBESTVIEWEDASPARTOFALARGER

STRUGGLETOBRINGHISTORYANDHISTORICALPRECEDENTTOBEARONTHELEGITIMACY

OF02#POLICIESANDRULEIN4IBETTODAY



4HE)NVASION1UESTIONOR7HAT#ONSTITUTES4IBET

4IBETWASNOTINVADEDBY#HINAINNORWERE4IBETANSIGNORANTOF

THENAMEOFTHEIRCOUNTRY4HESE LAST TWOPOINTSPURPOSELYPHRASEDSO

ASTORAISEEYEBROWSARECONNECTEDONCEMOREWITHTHEATTEMPTTODElNE

ASPECIlCVISIONOFANATION4HEYAREUSEFULINPOINTINGOUTTHEDEGREEOF

AMBIGUITY CONTRADICTION AND EVEN STRAINEDILLOGICAL INVENTIONTHAT GOES

INTOSUCHANENTERPRISE

4HElRSTPOINTRELATESTOTHEIDEAOFWHAT4IBETISEXACTLY7EHAVE

ALREADY NOTED THAT IN  WHEN THE 0,! ATTACKED ACROSS THE FRONTIER

SEPARATINGTHE TERRITORIES UNDERTHE$ALAI ,AMAS JURISDICTION FROMOTHER

PARTSOFTHE4IBETAN0LATEAUTHE4IBETANGOVERNMENTCLAIMEDTHAT#HINA

HADLAUNCHEDANINVASIONOF4IBET/NLYINTHESWASITDECIDEDTO

SET AS THEYEAROF THEINVASION4HE REASON VERYOBVIOUSLYWAS TO

ASSERTAPOLITICALCLAIMTOALLOFTHECONTIGUOUSTERRITORIESONTHE4IBETAN

0LATEAUINHABITEDBY4IBETANS4HISELICITSTHENATURALQUESTIONOFWHYTHE

4IBETANGOVERNMENTDIDNOTMAKETHECLAIMOFINVASIONIN/NEIS

HARDPRESSEDTOIMAGINE4IBETSBEINGINVADEDINWHILEITSPOPULATION

REMAINEDOBLIVIOUSOFTHEEVENT)NFACTTHETERRITORIESINVOLVEDGENERALLY

SPEAKING THE 4IBETANINHABITED REGIONS OUTSIDE THE MODERN 4IBET

;THE'OLDEN5RNS=

REVIVALASAPRESENTDAY

DEVICECANNOTBESEENAS

ANYTHINGBUTCYNICAL

 4HE4IBET#HINA#ONmICT 

!UTONOMOUS2EGIONHADBEENREMOVEDBYTHE1INGFROMTHEJURISDICTION

OFTHE4IBETANGOVERNMENTINTHEEARLYEIGHTEENTHCENTURY)NTHElRSTHALF

OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY THEY HAD BECOME PARTS OF #HINESE PROVINCES

SOMETHINGTHE1INGHADNOTDONEWITHTHEMANDWEREGENERALLYUNDER

THEDOMINATIONOFPROVINCIALWARLORDS4HETIESOFCULTURELANGUAGEAND

RELIGION BETWEEN THESE AREAS AND ,HASA REMAINED LARGELY UNIMPEDED

)NDEED THE PRESENT $ALAI ,AMA AND THE PREVIOUS 0ANCHEN ,AMA WERE

BOTHBORNINTHESEREGIONS4HUSANACCOMMODATIONWITHTHISSITUATIONOF

DIVIDEDPOLITICALREGIMESONTHE4IBETAN0LATEAUWASINPLACE-ANYPEOPLE

INTHE4IBETANGOVERNMENTWERELARGELYIGNORANTOFWHATTHEIMPLICATIONS

OF THIS WERE IN TERMS OF MODERN NATIONALIST ASPIRATIONS #LEARLY IT WAS

THECOMING TO TERMSWITH THAT SENTIMENTINTHE AFTERMATHOF THAT

DISABUSEDCERTAINlGURESINTHEEXILECOMMUNITYOFTHEVIABILITYOFA4IBET

WITHIMPRECISEBORDERSANDSTATUS

%SSENTIALLY THE VAGARIES OF THE SITUATION ON THE 4IBETAN 0LATEAU

BEFORE  WERE SUCH THAT THE4IBETAN GOVERNMENT ACCOMMODATED AN

ARRANGEMENTWITH#HINESEPROVINCIALPOWERSINWHICHMUCHWASINFORMAL

ANDLEFTUNARTICULATEDINOFlCIALAGREEMENTS4HE4IBETANGOVERNMENTHAD

LONGBEENACCUSTOMEDTOTHISSTATEOFAFFAIRSANDDISCRETIONWASOFTENPART

OFIT.OTTHATTHE4IBETANGOVERNMENTHADWRITTENOFFTHEEASTERNPORTIONS

OF THE 4IBETAN 0LATEAU THEIR STATUS HAD BEEN PART OF THE BRIEF BROUGHT

BY THE 4IBETAN DELEGATION AT THE 3IMLA CONFERENCE AND EARLIER DECADES

HADSEENSERIOUSCONmICTTHERE"UTTHEREWASNOURGENTSENSETHAT4IBET

HADBEENINVADEDWHENINCIVILANDMILITARYOFlCIALSOFTHE02#

REPLACEDTHERULERSINTHEAREAWHOHADBEENPARTOFTHE#HINESE2EPUBLICAN

PRESENCETHERE3OOBTUSEWASTHE4IBETANGOVERNMENTINTHOSEYEARSABOUT

QUESTIONSOFSOVEREIGNTY THAT IT HADEVENBEEN ABLETOPERSUADESOMEIN

,HASATHATITSSIGNINGOFTHE3EVENTEEN0OINT!GREEMENTINSTILLLEFT

4IBETINDEPENDENT



4HUSTHEREWASNOCLAIMOFAINVASIONUNTILTHE

SEVENTHOUGHTHEBACKBONEOFTHEUPRISINGCOMPRISED4IBETANS

FROMTHEVERYAREASINQUESTIONTHOSETHATLAYOUTSIDETHEJURISDICTIONOF

THE$ALAI,AMASGOVERNMENTCERTAINLYONECANNOTDISPUTETHEIRIDENTITY

AS4IBETANS

)NDUECOURSETHE4IBETANGOVERNMENTINEXILEBEGANTOBACKTRACKIN

ORDERTOBUILDAVISIONOF4IBETTHATREmECTEDTHENEWSENSEOFNATIONALISM

THATGREWOUTOFTHEREVOLTANDTHEYEARSOFEXILETHATFOLLOWED9ETA

PAMPHLETON4IBETSSTATUSPUBLISHEDBYTHE$ALAI,AMAS.EW$ELHIOFlCE

NOTLONGAFTERTHEUPRISINGGAVEASTHEDATEOFTHEINVASION





  %LLIOT3PERLING

7HEN REPRINTED IN  THE DATE HAD BEEN CHANGED TO 



 4HE

INTRODUCTIONBYTHE4IBETANGOVERNMENTINEXILES /FlCEOF)NFORMATION

AND)NTERNATIONAL2ELATIONSTOTHESURVEYOF3INO

4IBETANRELATIONSBY4ASHI4SERINGSPEAKSOFhTHE

#HINESEINVASIONANDOCCUPATIONINvWITH

hINVASIONANDvWHITEDOUT



)F THIS SHOWS SOME RATHER SLOPPY STITCHING

IN THE 4IBETAN CONSTRUCTION OF WHAT 4IBET IS

THEINCLUSIONOF4IBETWITHINTHE#HINESEVISION

OF #HINA HAS ALSOPRODUCED SOME BIZARRE TWISTS

OFLOGIC/NESUCHTWISTRELATESTOLANGUAGEAND

STEMSFROMTHESAMEMOTIVATIONTHATISATWORKIN

THE#HINESEREVISIONOFTHETERM(ANዧ∞A

SYNONYM FOR #HINESE NOW MARSHALED IN ORDER

THATh#HINESEvANOTHERWISEETHNOLINGUISTICALLY

SPECIlC DESIGNATION CAN BE APPLIED TO -ONGOLS 4IBETANS AND OTHER

NATIONALMINORITIES4HE4IBETANLANGUAGEHASNEVERTREATEDTHETERMFOR

#HINA2GYANAGASMEANINGANYTHINGOTHERTHANTHECOUNTRYNEIGHBORING

4IBETTOTHEEAST)TSlELDOFMEANINGDOESNOTENCOMPASS4IBETMUCHAS

THE4IBETANNAMEFOR4IBET"ODDOESNOTENCOMPASS#HINA !NARTICLE

FROM #HINAS 4IBET PUBLISHED IN  TO COMMEMORATE THE SIGNING

OF THE 3EVENTEEN0OINT !GREEMENT DESCRIBED SOME OF THE TRANSLATION

PROBLEMS THAT AROSE DURING THE AGREEMENTS NEGOTIATION )T CONTAINED A

TELLING COMMENT h)N;THE=4IBETAN LANGUAGE THERE WAS NO WORD WHICH

MEANT @#HINAv



 4HE AUTHOR WHO WORKED AS A TRANSLATOR DURING THE

NEGOTIATIONS THEN NOTES THAT THE #HINESE NAME FOR #HINA HAD TO BE

TRANSLITERATEDTOPROVIDEAUSABLETERM)NEFFECTSINCETHE#HINESEPOSITION

WASTHAT4IBETHADBEENANINTEGRALPARTOF#HINAFORCENTURIESTHEONLY

POSSIBLEINTERPRETATIONFORTHISANECDOTEIFONETAKESITATFACEVALUEISTHAT

THEAUTHORCONSIDERED4IBETANSTOBEIGNORANTOFTHENAMEOFTHEIROWN

COUNTRY/FCOURSETHATIGNORANCEISANINVENTIONWHATTHE4IBETANSWERE

UNAWAREOFWASTHEBEGINNINGOFAPROCESSOFMOLDINGANDMANIPULATINGA

NEW4IBETANIDENTITY

"UTTHISPROCESSWASPARTOFTHECONSTRUCTIONOF#HINAANDTHE#HINESE

IDENTITY"ECAUSEOFTHEAUTHORITARIANUNDERPINNINGSOFTHATCONSTRUCTION

QUESTIONS ABOUT THE VALIDITY OF THE HISTORICAL CASE BEHIND 4IBETS

INCORPORATION IN THE 02# BECOME FRAUGHT WITH EXISTENTIAL OVERTONES )F

4IBETISPRESENTEDASANhINTEGRALvPARTOF#HINATHEIMPLICATIONSFORTHE

4IBETANGOVERNMENT

ACCOMMODATEDAN

ARRANGEMENTWITH

#HINESEPROVINCIAL

POWERSINWHICHMUCH

WASINFORMALANDLEFT

UNARTICULATEDINOFlCIAL

AGREEMENTS

 4HE4IBET#HINA#ONmICT 

INTEGRITYOFA#HINASOCONSTRUCTEDAREFUNDAMENTALONCETHELEGITIMACY

OFTHATPOSITIONISUNDERMINED4HUSTHESIMPLEREALIZATIONTHATCERTAIN

ELEMENTS INTHE CONTEMPORARY VISION OF #HINA ARE MODERNCONTRIVANCES

ANDHARDLYALEGACYHANDEDDOWNFROMTIMEIMMEMORIALHASVERYSERIOUS

RAMIlCATIONS/NEMIGHTCARRYTHETHOUGHTFURTHERCALLINGTHISVISIONINTO

QUESTIONALSORAISESISSUESABOUTTHEPOLITICALSTRUCTURESTHATDERIVEFROMA

lXEDNOTIONOF#HINAANDTHE#HINESEIDENTITYINITSOWNWAYTHISRAISES

ISSUES ABOUT A GOVERNMENT THAT STAKES SO MUCH OF ITS LEGITIMACY ON ITS

PERCEIVEDABILITYTODELIVERASPECIlCVISIONOF#HINA

#ONCLUSION

4HEHISTORICALSTATUS OF4IBETISHARDLYASMALLMATTEROFCLARIFYINGSOME

TEXTUAL MISUNDERSTANDINGS WERE THAT THE CASE THIS PAPER MIGHT INDEED

BE WELCOME TO ALL PARTIES 4HE ISSUE HAS A RESONANCE WELL BEYOND THAT

THEPOSITIONSOFTHEPARTIESTOTHE4IBETISSUEAREIMBUEDWITHQUESTIONS

OFPOLITICALANDNATIONAL IDENTITYANDGROUNDEDINDECADESOF POLEMICAL

DIPLOMATICANDMILITARYSTRUGGLE4HEFACTSASESTABLISHEDBYRECOURSETO

THEHISTORICAL RECORDAREWONT TO BESUBJECT TO DIVERGENTINTERPRETATIONS

SOME ELEMENTS ARE EMPHASIZED OTHERS IGNORED 7HY THEN ACKNOWLEDGE

THESEFACTS

&ORONETHINGTHEREISTHESHEERNECESSITYANDNATURALIMPETUSTO

KNOWASMUCHASCANBEKNOWNOFTHEPATHTHATHASLEADTOTHECURRENT

SITUATION4HISUNDERSTANDINGISCENTRALTOANYATTEMPTTOGAINCONTROLOVER

THEISSUEEVENIFTHEPARTIESTOITHAVEDIFFERENTVIEWSOFTHEHISTORICALFACTS

WESTILLNEEDTOKNOWWHATTHOSEFACTSAREASWELLASTHEMANNERINWHICH

THEYAREBEINGDISPUTED

4HENTHEREISTHEREALITYTHATTHEFUNDAMENTALPLACEOFHISTORYINTHE

4IBETISSUEISNOTSOMETHINGIMPOSEDBYOUTSIDEPARTIES%VENTHOUGHTHE

$ALAI,AMAANDHISEXILEGOVERNMENTAPPEARQUITEATEASEWITHACCEPTING

4IBETASAPARTOF#HINATHE02#HASPOINTEDLYACCUSEDTHE$ALAI,AMA

OF DUPLICITY STATING THAT HIS UNWILLINGNESS TO RECOGNIZE4IBET AS HAVING

BEEN AN INTEGRAL PART OF #HINA FOR CENTURIES RENDERS HIS ACQUIESCENCE

UNACCEPTABLE



4HECENTRALITYOFHISTORYINTHEQUESTIONOF4IBETSSTATUS

COULDNOTBEMADECLEARER

4HEREFOREITDOESMATTERWHETHERTHE9UANDYNASTYMADE4IBETAPART

OF#HINAINTHETHIRTEENTHCENTURY4HE$ALAI,AMASREFUSALTOACCEDETO

THISPROPOSITIONHASONTHEFACEOFITBECOMEONEOF#HINASPRIMARYSTATED

REASONSFORTHEIMPASSEOVERTHE4IBETISSUE)NTHISCONTEXTITMATTERSTOO

  %LLIOT3PERLING

THAT #HINESE COMMENTATORS INTO THE S HELD THAT4IBET HAD BEEN A

VASSALSTATEOFTHE1ING

3IMILARLY THE USE OF THE 'OLDEN 5RN IN RECOGNIZING 4IBETAN

INCARNATIONSISASIGNIlCANTISSUE)TISCLEARLYMEANTTOIMPARTLEGITIMACYTO

#HINESECONTROLOVERTHEINCARNATIONOFHIGHLAMASWITHAPARTICULAREYE

TOTHE$ALAI,AMASNEXTINCARNATIONTHROUGHTHE

ESTABLISHMENTOFHISTORICALCONTINUITY4HE02#

INEXCORIATINGTHE$ALAI,AMAFORNOTACCEPTING

ITS USE OF THIS 1ING PROCEDURE IS CONSCIOUSLY

MANIPULATINGAHISTORICALELEMENTIN3INO4IBETAN

RELATIONS)TISIMPOSSIBLETOIGNORE#HINASDESIRE

FOR HISTORICAL PRECEDENT HERE AS A LEGITIMIZING

ELEMENTFORITSADMINISTRATIONOF4IBET

"OTHTHEQUESTIONOFTHEPRIESTPATRONRELATIONSHIPASONEEXCLUSIVEOF

POLITICALSUBORDINATIONANDTHESTATUSOFTERRITORIESOUTSIDETHECONTROLOFTHE

$ALAI,AMASGOVERNMENTONTHEEVEOF4IBETSINCORPORATIONINTOTHE02#

ARE LIKEWISE QUESTIONS THAT STILL PROVOKE STRONG OFlCIAL PRONOUNCEMENTS

MEANT TO ASSERT HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS TO LEGITIMIZE OR CONTEST CURRENT

CIRCUMSTANCES !S WE HAVE SEEN THE PRESENTATION OF4IBETS RELATIONSHIP

WITHIMPERIAL#HINAASARELIGIOUSONEWITHNOACKNOWLEDGEMENTACCORDED

THEATTESTEDSUBORDINATIONOF4IBETTOTHEEMPERORSOFTHE-ONGOL9UAN

AND-ANCHU1INGDYNASTIESISAMISREPRESENTATIONOFTHEHISTORICALRECORD

4HEREISABITMOREAMBIGUITYABOUTTHETERRITORIALIDENTITYOF4IBETANAREAS

OUTSIDETHEJURISDICTIONOFTHE$ALAI,AMASGOVERNMENTBUTITREMAINSA

FACTTHATINWHENTHOSEAREASWERETAKENUNDERTHEADMINISTRATION

OFTHE02#THE4IBETANGOVERNMENTDIDNOTCLAIMITSTERRITORYHADBEEN

INVADED

)NSPITEOFALLTHISONEMIGHTSTILLSAYTHESTATUSOF4IBETWHATEVERIT

WASINTHEPASTISNOWSETTLEDANDTHEINCORPORATIONOF4IBETINTO#HINA

HASLONGSINCEBEENAFAITACCOMPLI"UTSETTLEDISSUESHAVETHECAPACITYTO

REARUPUNEXPECTEDLYANDCATCHTHEPOLITICALSTATEOFAFFAIRSUNAWARE!ND

ITISTHENTHATHISTORYBECOMESVITAL)TWOULDBESENSIBLETOHAVEAGRASPOF

THATHISTORYBEFORETHEFACT

4HECENTRALITYOFHISTORY

INTHEQUESTIONOF4IBETS

STATUSCOULDNOTBEMADE

CLEARER