Sperling E. The Tibet-China Conflict: History and Polemics

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 4HE4IBET#HINA#ONmICT 

4IBETAN0LATEAUUNDERTHEJURISDICTIONOFTHE$ALAI,AMASGOVERNMENT

4HE#HINESEHOWEVERINTHEIRNATURALURGEFOREXPANSIONHAVE

WHOLLYMISCONSTRUEDTHESIGNIlCANCEOFTHETIMEOFFRIENDSHIPAND

INTERDEPENDENCETHATEXISTEDBETWEEN#HINAAND4IBETASBETWEEN

NEIGHBOURS4OTHEM#HINAWASSUZERAINAND4IBETAVASSAL3TATE)TIS

THISWHICHlRSTAROUSEDLEGITIMATEAPPREHENSIONINTHEMINDOF4IBET

REGARDING#HINASDESIGNSONITSINDEPENDENTSTATUS



&ORCENTURIESTHEPRIESTPATRONRELATIONSHIPHASBEENAREALINSTITUTION

IN4IBETANHISTORYLINKINGSECULARRULERSWITH4IBETANHIERARCHS

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"UTIN

SOME ITERATIONS SUCH AS THOSE JUST CITED THE ARGUMENT ESSENTIALLY TURNS

ONANACCEPTANCEOFTHEPOSITIONTHAT4IBETSRELATIONSHIPTOTHEDYNASTIC

STATESTHATRULED#HINAWASNOTONEOFSOVEREIGNPOWERRULINGOVER4IBETS

TERRITORY AND PEOPLE BUT RATHERA SIMPLERELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMPERORS

ANDTHE4IBETANLAMASWHOGUIDEDANDINSTRUCTEDTHEM$URING#HINAS

2EPUBLICAN PERIOD WHEN THE $ALAI ,AMAS GOVERNMENT DID EXERCISE

INDEPENDENT RULE AND AUTHORITY OVER4IBET THE $ALAI ,AMA ON AT LEAST

ONEOCCASIONPROPOSEDTOTHE#HINESEGOVERNMENTTHATTHEPRIESTPATRON

RELATIONSHIPBETHEBASISFORRESOLVINGTHE4IBETISSUE



4HE4IBETANGOVERNMENTDIDNOTOTHERWISEPAYMUCHATTENTIONTOTHE

HISTORICALCASE FOR4IBETSINDEPENDENCE NOR DIDITEXPEND MUCHENERGY

IN ASSERTINGIT INANY DETAIL UNTILTHE CRISISOF  0RIOR TO THATTIME

THE4IBETANGOVERNMENTHADMADESOMEDEMONSTRATIONSOFTHEPRACTICAL

REALITY OF4IBETAN INDEPENDENCE BUT A STRUCTURED HISTORICALLYGROUNDED

ARGUMENTBEYONDTHEPOSITIONPRESENTEDATTHE3IMLACONFERENCEWASNOT

PUTFORWARD7ITH4IBETANACQUIESCENCETOTHE3EVENTEEN0OINT!GREEMENT

OF4IBETFORMALLYBECAMEPARTOFTHE0EOPLES2EPUBLICOF#HINAAND

THEQUESTIONOFITSHISTORICALSTATUSESSENTIALLYFELLDORMANT

/NLYWITHTHEEVENTSOFDID4IBETANSRETURNTOPUTTINGTOGETHERA

HISTORICALDEFENSEOF4IBETSSTATUSASANINDEPENDENTSTATE!SALREADYNOTED

DUEINPARTTOTHECIRCUMSTANCESOFEXILETHATDEFENSEISMULTIFARIOUSAT

TIMESINCONSISTENTANDOFTENMOREREmECTIVEOF7ESTERNIDEASANDACCOUNTS

OF4IBETTHANOFINDIGENOUS4IBETANEVIDENCEANDDOCUMENTS

!FTERWHENTHE$ALAI,AMABEGANTOCONSTITUTEAGOVERNMENT

INEXILETHEREWASANURGENTNEEDTOMAKEANAPPROACHTOTHE5./N

3EPTEMBERTHE$ALAI,AMAADDRESSEDALETTERTOTHE5.SECRETARY

GENERALLAYINGOUTANARGUMENTFOR4IBETANINDEPENDENCE

)ANDMY'OVERNMENTWISHTOEMPHASIZETHAT4IBETWASASOVEREIGN

  %LLIOT3PERLING

STATEATTHETIMEWHENHERTERRITORIALINTEGRITYWASVIOLATEDBYTHE

#HINESE!RMIESIN)NSUPPORTOFTHISCONTENTIONTHE'OVERNMENT

OF4IBETURGETHEFOLLOWING

 &IRSTNOPOWERORAUTHORITYWASEXERCISEDBYTHE'OVERNMENTOF

#HINAINOROVER4IBETSINCETHE$ECLARATIONOF)NDEPENDENCEBYTHE

TH$ALAI,AMAIN



!LLOTHERPOINTSMADEINTHELETTERALSORELATETOEVENTSOFTHETWENTIETH

CENTURYSUCHAS4IBETSNEUTRALITYIN7ORLD7AR))ANDTHECONTENTIONTHAT

THEABILITYOF4IBETANDELEGATESTOTRAVELTOVARIOUSCOUNTRIESON4IBETAN

PASSPORTSINTHESCONSTITUTEDRECOGNITIONOF4IBETSSOVEREIGNSTATUS





4HELACKOFREFERENCETOANY4IBETANDOCUMENTSISINDICATIVEOFTHEFACTTHAT

THE4IBETANGOVERNMENTINAPPROACHINGTHE5.AFTERSOUGHTOUT

ANDWORKEDWITHSEVERALNON4IBETANADVISERSANDMADEMUCHUSEOFTHE

WORKOFTHE)NTERNATIONAL#OMMISSIONOF*URISTSWHICHPUBLISHEDITSlRST

REPORTON4IBETIN



7ITH THE SUPPRESSION OF THE 4IBETAN UPRISING OF  CONTACT

BETWEENTHE#HINESEGOVERNMENTANDTHE$ALAI,AMASGOVERNMENTNOW

A4IBETANGOVERNMENTINEXILEEFFECTIVELYCEASED4HEHISTORICALSTATUSOF

4IBETWASDEALTWITHBYTHE4IBETANGOVERNMENTASPARTOFITSINTERNATIONAL

REPRESENTATION MORE OR LESS ALONG THE LINES OF ARGUMENTATION ALREADY

DESCRIBED4HEREWASNOREALENGAGEMENTWITH#HINESEARGUMENTSFORSOME

DECADES4IBETANPRONOUNCEMENTSONTHECASEFOR4IBETANINDEPENDENCE

REmECTED AN EMPHASIS ON TWENTIETHCENTURY

EVENTS AS ALREADY MENTIONED OR ON EVIDENCE

FROM 7ESTERN SOURCES (UGH 2ICHARDSON WHO

HADHELPEDTHE4IBETANSINTHEIRDEALINGSWITHTHE

5.AFTERPRODUCEDAHISTORYOF4IBETTHAT

STRESSEDTHECASEALONGSIMILARLINES-OREOVERHE

WASAMONGTHOSEWHOHELPEDINTERPRETTHEPRIEST

PATRONRELATIONSHIPFOR7ESTERNREADERSINAWAY

THATCAMETOBEREPEATEDANDECHOEDINLATERWRITINGS3TATINGTHATTHISWAS

AhPURELY#ENTRAL!SIANCONCEPTvHENOTED

)TISANELASTICANDmEXIBLEIDEAANDNOTTOBERENDEREDINTHECUT

ANDDRIEDTERMSOFMODERNWESTERNPOLITICS4HEREISINITNOPRECISE

DElNITIONOFTHESUPREMACYOFONEORTHESUBORDINATIONOFTHEOTHER

ANDTHEPRACTICALMEANINGOFTHERELATIONSHIPCANONLYBEINTERPRETEDIN

THELIGHTOFTHEFACTSOFTHEMOMENT



4IBETANPRONOUNCEMENTS

ONTHECASEFOR4IBETAN

INDEPENDENCEREmECTED

ANEMPHASISON

TWENTIETHCENTURYEVENTS

 4HE4IBET#HINA#ONmICT 

)N THE SAME YEAR THAT 2ICHARDSONS HISTORY APPEARED THE $ALAI

,AMA PUBLISHED AN %NGLISHLANGUAGE AUTOBIOGRAPHY THAT ALSO LAMENTED

THE INABILITY OF7ESTERN LEXICONS TO ADEQUATELY REmECTTHE NATURE OFTHIS

RELATIONSHIP

3UZERAINTYISAVAGUEANDANCIENTTERM0ERHAPSITWASTHENEAREST

WESTERNPOLITICALTERMTODESCRIBETHERELATIONSBETWEEN4IBETAND#HINA

FROMTOBUTSTILLITWASVERYINACCURATEANDTHEUSEOF

ITHASMISLEDWHOLEGENERATIONSOFWESTERNSTATESMEN)TDIDNOTTAKE

INTOACCOUNTTHERECIPROCALSPIRITUALRELATIONSHIPORRECOGNIZETHATTHE

RELATIONSHIPWASAPERSONALMATTERBETWEENTHE$ALAI,AMASANDTHE

-ANCHU%MPERORS4HEREAREMANYSUCHANCIENTEASTERNRELATIONSHIPS

WHICHCANNOTBEDESCRIBEDINREADYMADEWESTERNPOLITICALTERMS



2TSISDPON :HWASGABPAWHOSE HISTORY OF 4IBET DREW FROM A

WIDERANGEOF4IBETANSOURCESALSOREINFORCEDTHE4IBETANPOSITIONTHAT

THEPRIESTPATRONRELATIONSHIPWAS SOMETHING SO SPECIlC TO4IBET THAT ITS

SIGNIlCANCE WAS CLOSE TO IMPOSSIBLE FOR 7ESTERNERS TO APPRECIATE (IS

ORIGINALTEXTIN4IBETANISWORTHQUOTINGONTHISSUBJECT

4AKINGTOGETHERTHETWOEDICTSONEPRESENTEDBY;THE-ONGOLPRINCE=

'ODAN1ANTO3ASKYAPANDITAANDONEBY1UBILAI1ANTO0HAGSPA

RINPOCHETHElRSTRESEMBLESONEGIVENBYALORDTOASUBJECTWHILE

THELATTERISLIKEONEOFFEREDBYAPATRONTOALAMA4HATISEXACTLYHOW

WE%ASTERNPEOPLESWOULDCONSIDERIT4HELAMAACTSANDTEACHESIN

AWAYTHATSPREADSTHEDOCTRINESOFTHEDHARMAANDBRINGSPEACETO

BEINGS4HEPATRONMUSTATTENDTOTHElNANCIALREQUISITESSOTHATTHIS

MAYCONTINUEINTHELONGTERM4HUSWECANDESCRIBETHE0RIEST0ATRON

RELATIONSHIPBETWEEN4IBETAND-ONGOLIAASHAVINGEXISTEDALONGTHESE

LINES(OWEVERTHISCANNOTBEEXPLAINEDACCORDINGTO7ESTERNFORMS

OFPOLITICALBEHAVIOR)F7ESTERNERSSERIOUSLYANALYZETHEACCOUNTABOVE

;IETHEAUTHORSACCOUNTOFTHERELATIONSHIPBETWEEN0HAGSPAAND

1UBILAI=THENTHE1ANSPROFESSINGTHATHEWOULDNOTGOAGAINSTTHE

WISHESOF0HAGSPARINPOCHEWASANEXPLICITRECOGNITIONTHAT0HAGS

PAWASTHEHIGHESTPOWERIN4IBET3IMILARLYTHEMANNERINWHICHTHE

1ANREQUESTEDTHEDHARMAOFHIMSHOWEDHIMRESPECTREQUESTEDHIS

TEACHINGSWHENHECONQUERED3OUTHERN#HINAOFFEREDHIMASEALAND

HIGHTITLESACCOMPANIEDHIMENROUTETO!MDOANDCARRIEDOUTA

;CENSUS=INVESTIGATIONIN4IBETBECAUSEITWASTHECOMMANDOFTHELAMA

ALLREVEALNOTJUSTTHATTHETWOCOUNTRIESENGAGEDINMUTUALCOOPERATION



  %LLIOT3PERLING

ANDSHOWEDTHEHIGHESTRESPECTTOEACHOTHERBUTALSOTHATNEITHERONE

WASSUBORDINATETOTHEOTHER4HUSONTHEBASISOFTHIS0RIEST0ATRON

RELATIONSHIP;WESEETHAT=UPTHROUGHTHEENDOFTHE1INGOR-ANCHU

ERAINTHE)RON0IG9EAROFTHETHRABBYUNGTHEREEXISTED

BETWEEN4IBETAND#HINAACTIVITIESCOMMENSURATEWITHAMUTUAL0RIEST

0ATRONRELATIONSHIPASDESCRIBEDABOVE



!LMOSTNONEOFTHOSEWHOAPPROACHEDTHEQUESTIONOF4IBETSSTATUS

FROM THE 4IBETAN SIDE DEALT WITH THE SORT OF INSTITUTIONAL ISSUESTHE

STRUCTURES OF 1ING AUTHORITY IN 4IBET THE RULES AND OFlCES FOR DEALING

WITH4IBETTHATPERTAINEDINEARLIERDYNASTIESTHATAREANOTICEABLEPARTOF

#HINESESTUDIESANDPOLEMICS)NEFFECTTAKINGTHEIRLEADFROM:HWASGAB

PA THE CONSENSUS DEVELOPED THAT THE PRIESTPATRON RELATIONSHIP WAS THE

PRIMARYINSTITUTIONALSTRUCTUREFORUNDERSTANDINGTHEHISTORICALRELATIONSHIP

BETWEEN4IBETAND#HINA)NTHESTHE4IBETANGOVERNMENTINEXILE

TURNEDTOALONGTIME4IBETSUPPORTER-ICHAEL#VAN7ALTVAN0RAAGA

LAWYERWITHADEGREEININTERNATIONALLAWTOPROVIDEAFUNDAMENTALLEGAL

CASEFOR4IBETONETHATALSOTOOKINTOACCOUNT4IBETSHISTORICALRELATIONS

WITH #HINA4HE BOOK HE EVENTUALLYPRODUCED 4HE 3TATUS OF4IBET WAS

STRONGLY SUPPORTED BY THE 4IBETAN GOVERNMENTINEXILE WHICH HAD IT

TRANSLATED INTO 4IBETAN AND VAN 7ALT BECAME THE EXILE GOVERNMENTS

ADVISERONRELEVANTLEGALISSUES

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!SSUCHHISBOOKASMUCHASANYTHING

ELSEEFFECTIVELYCAMETOREPRESENTTHEOFlCIAL4IBETANEXILEPOSITION

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UNDERSTANDTHATSTATUSTHROUGHTHELENSOFTHEPRIESTPATRONRELATIONSHIP

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INTHISACCOUNTANINSISTENCETHATTHERELATIONSHIPCOULDNOTBEADEQUATELY

CONTAINEDWITHINCONVENTIONALINTERNATIONALLEGALTERMINOLOGY!CCORDING

TOVAN7ALT

4HISRELATIONSHIPFORMEDTHEBASISFORTHEFUTUREUNIQUERELATIONNOT

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INMORERECENTHISTORYBETWEENTHE-ANCHU%MPERORSANDTHE$ALAI

,AMAS

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 x;4=HERELIGIOUS#HYNRELATIONSHIPCANNOTBECATEGORIZEDOR

DElNEDADEQUATELYINCURRENTINTERNATIONALLEGALTERMSANDMUSTBE

REGARDEDASASUIGENERISRELATIONSHIPx

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 4HECONCLUSIONTHATMUSTBEREACHEDTHEREFOREISTHAT-ANCHU

4IBETANRELATIONSINTHEEIGHTEENTHCENTURYWHILEFORMALLYANDSOLELY

 4HE4IBET#HINA#ONmICT 

;EMPHASISADDED=BASEDONTHE#HYNRELATIONSHIPINCLUDEDFEATURES

PRIMARILYCHARACTERISTICOFPROTECTORATEARRANGEMENTSTHOUGHTHEY

WEREOFTENCONCEIVEDINTERMSOFTRIBUTARYRELATIONSBYTHE1INGCOURT

!STHEFORMALSOURCEOFGOVERNMENTREMAINEDIN4IBETAS4IBETWASNOT

CONQUEREDORANNEXEDBYTHE%MPERORBUTRATHERWASTAKENUNDERHIS

PROTECTIONANDASTHENATUREOF-ANCHUINTERFERENCEIN4IBETANAFFAIRS

SPECIlCALLYITSFOREIGNAFFAIRSDIDNOTDIFFERFROMTHATCHARACTERISTIC

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LIMITEDANDBYNOMEANSCONTINUOUSTHE3TATEOF4IBETNEVERCEASEDTO

EXIST4HEEXERCISEOFSOVEREIGNTYBYTHE4IBETANSWASRESTRICTEDBYTHE

-ANCHUINVOLVEMENTINTHEAFFAIRSOF4IBETBUTTHATDIDNOTRESULTIN

THEEXTINCTIONOFTHEINDEPENDENT3TATEWHICHCONTINUEDTOPOSSESSTHE

ESSENTIALATTRIBUTESOFSTATEHOOD

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4HEBASIC4IBETANPOSITIONONTHEHISTORICALSTATUSOF4IBETTHATISLAID

OUTHEREHASPRETTYMUCHBEENMAINTAINEDINTACTBY4IBETANSINEXILE4WO

YEARSBEFORETHE PUBLICATION OF4HE3TATUSOF4IBETVAN7ALT AUTHORED A

PAMPHLETFORTHE4IBETANGOVERNMENTINEXILETHATPUTITRATHERSUCCINCTLY

ATTHEOUTSETh4IBETEXISTEDASANINDEPENDENTSTATEFORALMOSTTWOTHOUSAND

YEARS BEFORE THE COMMUNIST #HINESE TROOPS INVADED AND OCCUPIED THE

COUNTRYv



4HEHISTORICALARGUMENTADVANCEDBYMANY4IBETANSINEXILE

CONTINUESTOMAINTAINTHAT4IBETHADALWAYSBEENINDEPENDENTUNTIL#HINA

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RELATIONSWITHTHE1INGPUBLISHEDBYTHE$EPARTMENTOF3ECURITYOFTHE

4IBETANGOVERNMENTINEXILECONCLUDEDh4HEESSENCEOFANANALYSISOFTHE

ACTUALRELATIONSHIPBETWEEN4IBET AND THE-ANCHUSlNDS THAT4IBETDID

NOTBELONGTOTHE-ANCHUSANDTHESITUATIONIN4IBETWASNOTONEOFACTUAL

-ANCHUADMINISTRATIONv

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/NE OF THE ONLY INSTITUTIONAL INNOVATIONS OF THE 1ING THAT IS REALLY

ADDRESSEDBY4IBETANWRITERSANDCOMMENTATORSHASBEENTHERECOGNITIONOF

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WAS IMPOSED AS PART OF THE  MEASURES INSTITUTED TO REFORM4IBETAN

AFFAIRS)TISEFFECTIVELYDISMISSEDWITH:HWASGABPASAYINGTHATINCHOOSING

THE$ALAI,AMASINTHEFOLLOWINGDECADESITWASEITHERNOTUSEDORAPRETENSE

WASMADEOFHAVINGUSEDIT

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)NESSENCETHEN4IBETANEXILEWRITERSGENERALLYDONOTDEALWITHTHE

INSTITUTIONALSTRUCTURESORINDEEDTHEINSTITUTIONALRECORDSOFTHEDYNASTIC

STATES CREATED IN #HINA 4HUS THEY DESCRIBE 4IBETS RELATIONS WITH THE

  %LLIOT3PERLING

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SKYAPASECTSINTERACTIONSWITH-ONGOLRULERS4IBETANDEALINGSWITHTHE

SUCCEEDING-INGDYNASTYAREGIVENONLYGLANCINGNOTICEATBEST%ARLY1ING

RELATIONSWITH4IBETAREDESCRIBEDINTHEMANNERJUSTRECOUNTEDIEFROM

THE STANDPOINT OF THE PRIESTPATRON RELATIONSHIP EXEMPLIlED LARGELY BY

-ANCHUINTERESTINTHE$ALAI,AMAS

4HEONEMINOREXCEPTIONTOTHEGENERALVIEWOF3INO4IBETANRELATIONS

IS REPRESENTED BY THE SMALL BOOKLET ON THE SUBJECT AUTHORED BY 4ASHI

4SERING AND PUBLISHED IN  BY THE $EPARTMENT OF )NFORMATION AND

)NTERNATIONAL2ELATIONSOFTHE4IBETANGOVERNMENTINEXILE4ASHI4SERING

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COMMENSURATEWITHTHESITUATIONTHATPREVAILEDINOTHERCOUNTRIESUNDER

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APARTOF#HINAPROPER(EALSOELABORATESONTHENATUREOF-ING4IBETAN

RELATIONSNOTINGTHATTHEREWASNO-INGDOMINATIONOVER4IBET



(EIS

ALSOMORENUANCEDTHANOTHER4IBETANWRITERSABOUTTHE1ING

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ONEOFPRIESTANDPATRONTHE-ANCHUVIEWEDITASONEOFVASSALAND

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RELATIONSHIPTHROUGHOUTITSDURATION

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4HE0REVAILING4IBETAN6IEWOF4IBETS(ISTORICAL3TATUS

7RITINGSFROMTHE4IBETANSIDEDOINDEEDTENDTOEMPHASIZETHELACKOF

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FOR 4IBETAN INDEPENDENCE 4HEY ALSO PLACE SOME STRESS ON SUBSEQUENT

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OFlCIALTRAVELDOCUMENTS

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ALSOTHEDATETHATAPPEAREDINMOSTCOMMENTARIESONTHE4IBETISSUE4HE

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FATEFUL YEAR OF 4IBET ENJOYED COMPLETE DE FACTO INDEPENDENCE OF

ANYOTHERNATIONv

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ANDALSOINANOTHERLETTERTOTHESECRETARYGENERALIN

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'OVERNMENT)SAYTHATWHATHAPPENEDON/CTOBER

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PARTOF#HINAAGAINSTMYCOUNTRYv

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4HISDATEFOR

THE0,!SINVASIONOF4IBETCAMETOBEGENERALLY

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ASCANBESEENBELOWTHEDATEOFHASEVEN

BEEN GIVEN IMPLYING THAT IT WAS THE #HINESE

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EARLIERSTATUS

!SSERTIONSANDTHE(ISTORICAL2ECORD

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HAVEBEENMADEABOUTTHESTATUSOF4IBET)TSHOULDALREADYBEOBVIOUSTHAT

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MIGHTIMAGINESIMPLYFROMLOOKINGATTHEMOSTRECENTELUCIDATIONSOFTHE

CASESFOR4IBETSSTATUSASEITHERAPARTOF#HINAORANINDEPENDENTSTATE

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INVADED4IBETIN

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!TTHEOUTSETWEHAVEINTERPRETATIONSTHATHAVEFORMEDOVERTHECOURSE

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THEPERIODOF-ONGOLRULE7HATISMOSTSTRIKINGISTHATONEDOESNOTlND

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/FlCIAL #HINESE HISTORIOGRAPHY HAS RECORDED OVER THE COURSE OF

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ALLOF#HINASREGIONSANDNATIONALITIES4HE4IBETREGIONBECAMEAN

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DURINGTHE9UAN

 4HE4IBET#HINA#ONmICT 

3HIJIAO:ONGZHIYUANh3UPREME#ONTROL#OMMISSIONFOR"UDDHISMv

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THERESPONSIBILITYFORMANAGING"UDDHISTAFFAIRSFORTHEWHOLECOUNTRY

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NATIONALITYAREAS

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QUESTION OF 4IBETS INCORPORATION INTO #HINA DURING THE 9UAN AND

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$YNASTY INVOLVES HISTORICALFACTS THATARE TOO NUMEROUSTO MENTIONAND

CANNOTBESETOUTHEREONEBYONEv

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!SARESULTMOST#HINESESOURCES

PRESENT A NARRATIVE OF ONLY THE BASIC EVENTS IN THE EVOLUTION OF 4IBETS

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THE02#AREUNIFORMINNOTENTERTAININGTHEPOSSIBILITYTHATTHE9UANWAS

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OVERWHELMINGLYVIEW THE SITUATIONASONE OF A-ONGOL %MPIRE1UBILAI

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TOTHE#HINESEPORTIONOFTHEEMPIRE!NDWHENTHE9UANCOLLAPSEDAND

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DESCRIPTIONOFTHE9UANNATURALLYOMITTED4IBETAS#HINESETERRITORY

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THE POSITIONS OF :HWASGABPA AND VAN 7ALT

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 !ND HERE THEY ARE ON

lRMERGROUNDFORTHEPRIESTPATRONRELATIONSHIPINVOKEDASIFTODENYA

RELATIONSHIPOFPOLITICALSUBORDINATIONPRESENTSLESSTHANAFULLPICTUREOF

4IBETSHISTORICAL RELATIONSHIP WITH #HINA4HE PRIESTPATRONRELATIONSHIP

HASBEENAFEATUREOF4IBETANPOLITICALANDRELIGIOUSLIFEFORCENTURIES)THAS

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BOTHINTERNALANDEXTERNALRULERSANDPOWERS4HEPRIESTPATRONRELATIONSHIP

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ȖANASWELLASDURING

PERIODSINWHICHTHOSEPOWERSHADNOREALPOLITICALAUTHORITYIN4IBET

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-INGDYNASTY

4HEGENERALOPINIONEVINCEDINMOSTMODERN#HINESEACCOUNTSOF4IBET

DURINGTHE-INGISASALREADYMENTIONEDTHATTHE-INGSIMPLYMAINTAINED

THESYSTEMTHATHADBEENESTABLISHEDBYTHE9UANFORTHEADMINISTRATIONOF

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TO IMPORTANT4IBETAN lGURES SO AS TO MAINTAIN A HIERARCHICALSYSTEM OF

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ENCOMPASSEDTHEGREATERPARTOFPRESENTDAY4IBET

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NOWTHEHIGHESTRANKINGOFlCIALIN(EZHOUANDWEARETOLDGIVENGENERAL

GOVERNINGAUTHORITYOVER(EZHOU-DO+HAMSAND $BUS'TSANGIE

ALLOF4IBET4HEIMPORTOFTHISISCONSIDERABLEIFONEISTOASSUMETHATTHE

-INGDYNASTYCONTINUEDTODOMINATE4IBETASTHE9UANHADFORTHISMAKES

7EI:HENGTHEMOSTPOWERFULPOLITICALlGUREIN4IBETATTHEBEGINNINGOF

THE-INGAPROPOSITIONTHATISONITSFACEFARCICAL7EI:HENGISWHOLLY

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IN4IBETPROPERBUTREMAINEDINTHEBORDERREGIONSAROUND(EZHOUAND

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STRUCTUREOF4IBET