Sperling E. The Tibet-China Conflict: History and Polemics

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 4HE4IBET#HINA#ONmICT 

WEREDRIVENOUTOFTHECOUNTRY4IBETWASTHENDElNITELYPLACEDUNDER

THESOVEREIGNTYOF#HINA



$URINGTHE2EPUBLICANERATHISBASICHISTORICALCLAIMWASMAINTAINED

ALBEIT WITH SOME SIGNIlCANT VARIATION !S WILL BE DISCUSSED LATER WHILE

2EPUBLICANERAWRITERSMAINTAINED#HINASCLAIMTOSOVEREIGNRIGHTSOVER

4IBETTHEYTENDEDTOVIEW4IBETASHAVINGBEENAVASSALSTATEOFTHE1ING

RATHER THAN ASTHE PRESENTDAY #HINESEPOSITION HAS ITAN INTEGRALPART

OF#HINA-OREPOTENTLY2EPUBLICANPRONOUNCEMENTSABOUTTHEPLACEOF

4IBETWITHINTHE#HINESENATIONSTRESSEDANESSENTIALLINKBETWEEN4IBETANS

AND #HINA WITH THE 4IBETANS CONSTITUTING A VITAL PART OF THE #HINESE

PEOPLE



0RESENTEDASATRUISMTHISPROPOSITIONWASNOTBACKEDUPBYANY

SORTOFANTHROPOLOGICALORBIOLOGICALARGUMENTATION)TSDERIVATIONFROMTHE

WRITINGSOF3UN9ATSENSUFlCEDTOLEGITIMATEIT

4HE FACTIS SUCH POSITIONINGDID NOT ADD MUCH TO THE ISSUE OR THE

SITUATIONBECAUSE4IBETSDEFACTOSTATUSEFFECTIVELYINDEPENDENTSIMPLY

COULDNOTBECHALLENGEDINANYPRACTICALWAY)NSTABILITYANDWARIN#HINA

LEFTTHE2EPUBLICANGOVERNMENTSINCAPABLEOFASSERTINGTHEIRRULEOVER4IBET

WHILE"RITAINTHEONLYOTHEROUTSIDEPOWERWITHCONSIDERABLEINTERESTIN

THEQUESTIONWASCONTENTTOLEAVETHINGSINLIMBOWITH4IBETVOIDOFANY

THREATENINGFORCES"RITAINCONTINUED TOPAY LIP SERVICE TOTHE NOTION OF

#HINAHAVINGRIGHTSTOASORTOFIMPOTENThSUZERAINTYvOVER4IBETBUTTHE

VERYVAGUENESSOFTHATTERMALLOWEDFORITTOBELEFTUNDElNEDUNSPECIlED

ANDULTIMATELYEASILYIGNORED

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4HEMIGHTOFTHEARMEDFORCESOFTHE0EOPLES2EPUBLICOF#HINAWHICH

HADWEATHEREDYEARSOFWARCHANGEDEVERYTHING7ITHTHEESTABLISHMENT

OFTHE0EOPLES2EPUBLIC#HINAHADAGOVERNMENTTHATFORTHElRSTTIME

SINCE THE COLLAPSE OF THE 1ING MARSHALED BOTH

THE CAPABILITY AND THE DETERMINATION TO ASSERT

ITSDOMINATIONOVER4IBET&ORTHELEADERSHIPOF

THE02#PARTICULARLYITSINTELLECTUALCADRETHE

VAGARIES OF RANDOM CONQUESTS AND SUBMISSIONS

IN THE PAST NO LONGER SUFlCED IN MAKING SENSE

OF HISTORY IN THE ENVIRONMENT OF DIALECTICAL

MATERIALISTIC HISTORIOGRAPHY 4IBETS INCLUSION

WITHINTHE#HINESESTATEWASNOWSOMETHINGTO

BEASSERTEDPROVENANDJUSTIlEDSCIENTIlCALLY4HEIDEOLOGICALIMPERATIVE

OBLIGED THE 02# TO DEAL MORE SPECIlCALLY WITH THE NATURE OF 4IBETS

HISTORICALINCLUSIONWITHINTHE#HINESESTATE/UTOFTHISMILIEUEVENTUALLY

4IBETSINCLUSIONWITHIN

THE#HINESESTATEWAS

NOWSOMETHINGTOBE

ASSERTEDPROVENAND

JUSTIlEDSCIENTIlCALLY

  %LLIOT3PERLING

EVOLVEDTHEINTERPRETATIONTHATHASBEENINPLACEFORSEVERALDECADESNOW

THE AFlRMATION THAT4IBET BECAME AN INTEGRAL PART OF #HINA DURING THE

PERIODOFTHE -ONGOL%MPIREWHEN THE-ONGOL RULERSOF#HINA UNITED

4IBETAND#HINA

#HINAS CURRENTLY CONSTRUCTED CASEHAS EVOLVED PARTLY IN RESPONSE TO

SPORADICNECESSITYITDIDNOTAPPEARINITSPRESENTFORMUNTILSOMETIME

AFTERTHEFOUNDINGOFTHE02#/NLYSOMEYEARSLATERWHENINTERNATIONAL

ATTENTION WAS FOCUSED ON THE 4IBET QUESTION DID THE #HINESE POSITION

BECOME MORE RElNED /FlCIAL PRONOUNCEMENTS AT THE TIME OF 4IBETS

INCORPORATION INTO THE 02# IN  NOTED THAT 4IBET HAD BEEN A PART

OF#HINAFOR CENTURIESBUTWEREOTHERWISEUNSPECIlCABOUTTHEDETAILS

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

/VER THE COURSE OF THE S HOWEVER MORE EMPHASIS WAS PLACED ON

CONSTRUCTINGACLEARERHISTORICALNARRATIVE

4HEINHERITEDOPINIONSTHAT#HINESECOMMENTATORSOFTHE2EPUBLICAN

PERIOD BEQUEATHED TO THE NEW 0EOPLES 2EPUBLIC HELD THAT4IBETS PLACE

WITHIN#HINASBORDERSHADBEENSOLIDIlEDDURINGTHE1ING4HEBASISFOR

SUCHJUDGMENTSWASSOMETHINGOFANANATHEMATOTHENEWSTATEHOWEVER

FORTHECOMMONCONSIDEREDOPINIONOFTHESEWRITERSWASTHAT4IBETDURING

THE1INGHADBECOMEAVASSALSTATEOFTHEEMPIRE)TGOESWITHOUTSAYING

THAT IMPERIAL POSSESSION AND DOMINATION COULD HARDLY BE ADDUCED TO

SUPPORTATERRITORIALCLAIMBYASTATEPREDICATINGITSLEGITIMACYON3CIENTIlC

3OCIALISMANDDEDICATEDTOTHEANTIIMPERIALISTSTRUGGLE.EVERTHELESSTHE

COLONIALPARADIGMISWHAT2EPUBLICANERAWRITERSWEREUSINGINDESCRIBING

4IBETSPLACEINTHE#HINESESTATEINDEEDTHEIRLANGUAGELEFTNOROOMFOR

AMBIGUITY4YPICALLYONEREADS

4HUSINBOTHTHETHANDTHYEARSOFTHE1IANLONGPERIOD

ANDTHERELATIONSHIPBETWEEN#HINAAND4IBETWASRADICALLY

REFORMED#HINASSOVEREIGNTYOVER4IBETWASlRMLYESTABLISHEDAND

AFTERWARDSIMPLEMENTEDINPRACTICALTERMS

&ROMTHETIMEOFTHEABOVEMENTIONEDRADICALREFORM4IBETWAS

PURELYREDUCEDTOAVASSALSTATEOF#HINAS4O#HINABELONGEDNOTONLY

SUZERAINRIGHTSOVER4IBETBUTSOVEREIGNRIGHTSASWELL

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!NDALSO

&ROMTHIS;IETHEREFORMSOF=THEACTIONSANDPROTOCOL

PERTAININGTOTHEAMBANSTATIONEDIN4IBETBEGANTOBEEQUALINSTATUS

TOTHOSEOFTHE$ALAIAND0ANCHENANDTHEYSTARTEDTOHAVESPECIAL

 4HE4IBET#HINA#ONmICT 

POWERSINRULING4IBET&ROMTHISTIMEON4IBETWASlRMLYESTABLISHED

AS#HINASVASSAL



4HESESORTSOFFORMULATIONSSIMPLYDIDNOTSTANDUPTOTHEIDEOLOGICAL

REQUIREMENTSOFTHENEWREGIMEWITHITSAVOWEDLYANTICOLONIALIDENTITY

4HUSONElNDSTHEIMPERIALASSOCIATIONSJETTISONEDINCOMMENTSON4IBET

COMING FROM THE NEW 0EOPLES 2EPUBLIC )T APPEARS HOWEVER THAT THE

CONCLUSIONTHAT4IBETHADBECOMEPARTOF#HINADURINGTHE1INGWASNOT

ATlRSTPROBLEMATIC)NONEOF#HINASBETTERKNOWNWRITERSON4IBET

(UANG&ENSHENG咘གྷ⫴PRESERVEDTHISBASICCHRONOLOGICALELEMENTINHIS

ACCOUNTOF4IBETSHISTORY

)NTHETHYEAROFTHE1IANLONGPERIODFOLLOWINGTHEDISPATCH

OFTROOPSTOPUTDOWNTHE'URKHAINCURSIONINTO4IBETANDTHE

SUBSEQUENTMILITARYVICTORYTHESOCALLEDh2EGULATIONSFOR2ESOLVING

4IBETAN-ATTERSvWEREPROMULGATED4HEYESTABLISHEDTHEEQUALRANK

OFTHEAMBANWITHTHE$ALAIAND0ANCHENANDHISDIRECTAUTHORITYTO

CONTROLPOLITICALMILITARYRELIGIOUSlNANCIALCOMMUNICATIONSAND

TRANSPORTATIONMATTERS4IBETATTHATPOINTBECAMEWHOLLYAPARTOF

#HINASTERRITORY



4HEINCORPORATIONOF4IBETINTOTHE02#INWASINPARTMADE

EASIERBYTHEFACTTHATTHE2EPUBLICOF#HINAHADBEENQUITEVOCALWHEN

OPPORTUNITIES PRESENTED THEMSELVES IN ASSERTING THAT 4IBET WAS PART OF

#HINA !S A RESULT THE STATUS OF 4IBET WAS NOT AT ISSUE IN THE CONmICT

BETWEEN THE .ATIONALISTS AND THE #OMMUNISTS AND WAS NOT THEREFORE

ANISSUEONWHICHTHESUPPORTERSOFONESIDEORTHEOTHERNEEDEDTOTAKE

STANDS)TWASONLYTHEDEVELOPMENTOF4IBETANRESISTANCEANDTHEOUTBREAK

OFOPENREVOLTTHATBROUGHTTHEQUESTIONOF4IBETSSTATUSTOINTERNATIONAL

ATTENTION0ARTICULARLYINTHEYEARSFOLLOWINGTHE4IBETANREVOLTAND

THEmIGHTOFTHE$ALAI,AMACASTTHE4IBETANSITUATIONINSUCHAWAYTHAT

INTERNATIONAL SYMPATHY WITH 4IBETAN ASPIRATIONS FOR SELFDETERMINATION

WERE BROADER THAN THEY HAVE BEEN SINCE #HIANG +AISHEK EVEN ISSUED

A PRONOUNCEMENT FROM4AIWAN ON -ARCH   SPECIlCALLY STATING

THAT AFTER THE ULTIMATE DEFEAT OF COMMUNISM ON THE #HINESE MAINLAND

THE2EPUBLICOF#HINAWOULDBEWILLINGTOALLOWTHE4IBETANSTHERIGHTOF

SELFDETERMINATION



SOMETHINGTHAT2EPUBLICAN#HINAWOULDNEVERHAVE

CONCEDEDWHILEINPOWERONTHEMAINLAND4HATRIGHTWASRECOGNIZEDBY

THE5NITED.ATIONS5.INARESOLUTIONON4IBETINPERHAPSTHE

HIGHPOINTOFINTERNATIONALSUPPORTFOR4IBETANINDEPENDENCE4ODAYNO

  %LLIOT3PERLING

COUNTRYADVOCATESTHATPOSITIONNORDOESTHE$ALAI,AMA

4HEEVENTSOF  INWHICHTHE4IBET ISSUEWASACTIVELYDISCUSSED

AND CONSIDERED BY THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY ULTIMATELY RESULTING IN

ITS BEING TAKEN UP BY THE 'ENERAL !SSEMBLY OF THE 5NITED .ATIONS IN

THEFALLBROUGHTFORTHAMOREFORMALANDFORCEFULSTATEMENTOFTHE02#S

POSITION)N-AYONLYTWOMONTHSAFTERTHEOUTBREAKOFlGHTINGIN

,HASA AND ASA CLEARCOUNTERWEIGHTTO ALLOF THE INTERNATIONAL ATTENTION

THEN BEING ACCORDED THE4IBET ISSUE THE #HINESE GOVERNMENT PRESENTED

ITS CASE ON 4IBET IN A WELLKNOWN VOLUME #ONCERNING THE 1UESTION OF

4IBET 7ITHIN THAT VOLUME THE NARRATIVE OF 4IBETAN HISTORY APPROACHED

ITSCURRENTFORM#ONCERNINGTHE1UESTIONOF4IBETSTATESCLEARLYTHATh;T=HE

HISTORICALRECORDPROVESTHAT4IBETDURINGITSLONGHISTORYHASNEVERBEEN

ANINDEPENDENTCOUNTRYBUTAPARTOF#HINAv



)NDEEDWITHINITSPAGES

THE4IBETANIMPERIALSTATEOFTHESEVENTHTO THENINTHCENTURIESONEOF

THEGREAT%URASIANPOWERSOFITSTIMEISEFFECTIVELYPRESENTEDASSUBJECTTO

#HINAANDANUMBEROFELEMENTSRELATINGTOIMPERIAL4IBETSRELATIONSHIP

WITH4ANG#HINAAREADDUCEDTOSUPPORTTHISPOSITION)TISIMPLIEDQUITE

CLEARLYTHAT4IBETANEMPERORSHADTOHAVETHEIRTITLESCONlRMEDBY4ANG

#HINAINORDERTOBELEGITIMATERULERSTHE3INO4IBETANTREATYOFn

ISCITEDINITSINSCRIBEDFORMASAMONUMENTTOTHEUNITYBETWEEN4IBETAND

#HINAANDTHE4IBETANEMPEROR+HRIGTSUGLDEBTSANISPOINTEDLYQUOTED

ASASSERTINGTHAT4IBETAND4ANG#HINACONSTITUTEDONEFAMILY

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BOOKALSOSTATESTHATFOLLOWINGALONGPERIODOFFRAGMENTATION

;T=HECHAOSIN4IBETWASBROUGHTTOANENDANDUNITYWASACHIEVED

WHEN-ONGKO%MPEROR(SIEN4SUNGOFTHE9UANDYNASTYSENTAN

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9UAN%MPIREANDITHASBEENAPARTOFTHETERRITORYOF#HINAEVER

SINCE

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IN  ELICITED A NEW lRM FORMULATION OF THE STAGES OF 3INO4IBETAN

RELATIONS)NTHElRSTSTAGEFROMTHESEVENTHTOTHETHIRTEENTHCENTURIES

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 4HE4IBET#HINA#ONmICT 

OF#HINADURINGTHEERAOF-ONGOLRULEASTATUSITHASMAINTAINEDUNTIL

THEPRESENT

4O SHORE UP THIS POSITION #HINA BEGAN PUBLISHING A GROWING

NUMBER OF BOOKS AND ARTICLES SUPPORTING IT FROM THE EARLY S ON

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4HE DOCUMENTARY COLLECTIONS MENTIONED EARLIER HAVE BEEN PARTICULARLY

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DETAILEDDESCRIPTIONOF4IBETSHISTORICALPLACEWITHIN#HINATHANANYTHING

PREVIOUSLYPROPOSEDBYTHE02#

4HE0REVAILING#HINESE6IEWOF4IBETS(ISTORICAL3TATUS

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BYTHECREATIONOFSEVERALSTATEBUREAUSANDOFlCESUNDERTHE9UANFORTHE

PURPOSEOFRULING4IBET-OSTPROMINENTLYARETHE:ONGZHIYUAN᜔ࠫೃ

LATERRENAMEDTHE8UANZHENGYUAN৙ਙೃWHICHDEALTWITH4IBETANAND

"UDDHISTAFFAIRSASWELLASTHREESUBORDINATEPACIlCATIONOFlCESXUANWEI

SHISI ৙ᐣࠌ׹ THAT DEALT WITH THE MILITARY AND CIVIL ADMINISTRATION

OF4IBETAN AREAS4HE MOST IMPORTANT4IBETAN lGURE MENTIONED IN THE

LITERATURE ON THE SUBJECT IS OF COURSE THE 3ASKYAPA CLERIC 0HAGSPA IN

#HINESE "ASIBA Զ৸֣ n THE NEPHEW OF 3ASKYA PANDITA

+UNDGARGYALMTSHANn

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AN AND WAS AWARDED APPROPRIATE TITLES lRST

STATEPRECEPTORGUOSHIഏஃANDTHENIMPERIALPRECEPTORDISHI০ஃ

9UAN

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ANDGIVEANACCOUNTOFTHEADMINISTRATIVEDISTRICTSINTOWHICH4IBETWAS

DIVIDEDASPARTOF9UANADMINISTRATIONSPECIlCALLYTHETHREELARGEDISTRICTS

CONSTITUTING THE GREATER AREA OF THE 4IBETAN 0LATEAU TERMED CHOLKHA

-ONG

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ᆄ֪ࢌ4IBKHRISKOR/NCERTAINOCCASIONSWHENTROUBLEERUPTED9UAN

FORCESENTERED4IBETANDACTEDINSUPPORTOF9UAN3ASKYAINTERESTS!LLOF

THISlGURESINVARIOUSMODERN#HINESEACCOUNTSOF4IBETUNDERTHE9UAN

!SDESCRIBEDINTHESEACCOUNTSTHE9UAN-INGTRANSITIONHADNOEFFECT

ON#HINASSOVEREIGNTYOVER4IBET4HENEWDYNASTYCONTINUEDTORULE4IBET

MUCHASTHE9UANHADWITHCERTAINCRUCIALCHANGES4OBESURE#HINESE

ACCOUNTSOFTENEMPHASIZETHELOOSERADMINISTRATIONEMPLOYEDIN4IBETAS

COMPAREDTOTHATIN#HINAPROPERBUT4IBETTHEYSAYWASUNAMBIGUOUSLY

RULEDBYTHE-INGCOURTASAPARTOF#HINA5NDERTHE-INGAWIDERGROUP

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OF4IBETANCLERICSRECEIVEDTITLESANDHONORSFROMTHECOURTTHESETITLESARE

PRESENTEDASYETONEMORESIGNOF-INGAUTHORITYOVER4IBET4HE-ING

GRANTEDTITLESNOTONLYTOCLERICSBUTALSOTOAVARIETYOFIMPORTANT4IBETAN

LAYlGURESASWELL4HE-INGTITLESDIFFEREDSOMEWHATFROMTHOSEGRANTED

BYTHE9UANTHETITLEIMPERIALPRECEPTORWASNOT

USED BUT A NUMBER OF 4IBETANS WERE ACCORDED

THETITLEDHARMARAJA#HFAWANGऄ׆4IBCHOS

RGYAL BY THE COURT WHILE OTHERS RECEIVED LESSER

TITLES4HISTACTICALLOWEDTHE-INGTOMAKEUSEOF

4IBETAN"UDDHISMINITSADMINISTRATIONOF4IBET

MUCHAS THE9UAN DID !TTHESAME TIMETHERE

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4IBETANHORSESTOTHE#HINESEINTERIORINEXCHANGEFORTEAANDOTHERGOODS

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WHICHTHECOURTMAINTAINEDLINKSWITHAVARIETYOF4IBETANlGURES

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lGURES#HINESEWRITERSALSOTAKENOTEOFCERTAINOFlCESESTABLISHEDTODEAL

WITH4IBETAND4IBETANAFFAIRS3OME#HINESEWRITERSPOINTOUTTHATDURING

THE-INGDYNASTYACOMMANDERYWASESTABLISHEDIN(EZHOUTOADMINISTER

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THECENTEROF-INGADMINISTRATIVEAUTHORITYOVER4IBET4HEINVITATIONTO

THEIMPORTANT$GELUGSPALEADER4SONGKHAPA"LOBZANGGRAGSPATOVISIT

COURT AND THE SUBSEQUENT HONORS ACCORDED 3HAKYA YESHES THE DISCIPLE

WHOCAMETOCOURTINHISSTEADAREALSOADDUCEDASEVIDENCEOF4IBETSPLACE

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WRITERSHAVETAKENPAINSTOPOINTOUTTHATTHE$ALAI,AMASBEGANTORECEIVE

#HINESETITLESFROMTHE-INGCOURT

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OF #HINA4HE lFTH $ALAI ,AMA QUICKLY ESTABLISHED LINKS WITH THE NEW

DYNASTYANDINTURNHEWASDULYRECOGNIZEDBYTHE1INGINMUCHTHESAME

WAYTHAT4IBETANSDURINGTHE-INGWERECONFERREDWITHLEGITIMACYTHROUGH

THETITLESANDHONORSACCORDEDTHEMBYTHECOURT!SARESULT#HINAASSERTS

AlRMDEGREEOFCONTINUITYIN4IBETSPLACEWITHINTHE#HINESESTATE)THAS

BEENCLAIMEDTHATONLYWHENTHE1INGRECOGNIZEDTHETITLEh$ALAI,AMAv

DIDTHEBEARERACQUIREANYLEGITIMATEPOLITICALAUTHORITY

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THE9UAN-ING

TRANSITIONHADNOEFFECT

ON#HINASSOVEREIGNTY

OVER4IBET

 4HE4IBET#HINA#ONmICT 

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CHANGESIN1INGRELATIONSANDDEALINGSWITH4IBETARESEENASDEVELOPMENTS

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TOUNDERTAKETHESTEPSITTOOKIN4IBETARESIMPLYMANIFESTATIONSOFTHAT

SOVEREIGNTYFROMTHEOUTSETNOTASPRE02##HINESEWRITERSWEREWONT

TO OBSERVE STEPS IN ITS DEVELOPMENT4HUS AS FAR AS 02# OBSERVERS ARE

CONCERNED THE VARIOUS ELEMENTS OF 1ING ARMIES ENTERING 4IBET 1ING

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CALIBRATIONSINTHEDUTIESOFTHOSEOFlCIALSTHESIZEOFTHE1INGGARRISON

ETC SIMPLY REmECT THE #HINESE CENTRAL GOVERNMENTS NORMAL REVISIONS

OF ITS POLICIES FOR A REGION THAT HAD BEEN PART OF THE #HINESE STATE FOR

CENTURIES



4HERE IS NATURALLY FAR MORE INFORMATION AVAILABLE ABOUT THE 1ING

ROLEIN4IBETGIVENITSCHRONOLOGICALPROXIMITYTOOURTIMESTHANABOUT

PRECEDING DYNASTIES CONSEQUENTLY #HINESE WRITERS AND SCHOLARS CAN

DESCRIBE 4IBETS PLACE WITHIN 1ING DYNASTY #HINA IN DETAIL 4HUS WE

CAN lND4IBETS STATUS DESCRIBED EXTENSIVELY WITHREGARDTO THEPOLITICAL

USEOF4IBETAN"UDDHISMANDTHELINKSBETWEEN4IBETANMONKSANDTHE

1INGCOURTASWELLASWITHREGARDTOTHEVARIOUSADMINISTRATIVEMEASURES

IMPLEMENTEDFOR4IBET

$UE ATTENTION IS GIVEN TO THE  ARTICLES THAT COMPRISED THE

h2EGULATIONS FOR 2ESOLVING 4IBETAN -ATTERSv MENTIONED EARLIER

0ROMULGATED BY THE 1ING IN THE AFTERMATH OF THE 'URKHA WAR THESE

ARTICLESDEALTWITHANUMBEROFISSUESINCLUDINGTHEELEVATIONOFTHEAMBAN

TOALEVELEQUALTOTHATOF#HINESEPROVINCIALGOVERNORSANDTHERESULTANT

INTERDICTION AGAINST THE $ALAI ,AMAS HAVING DIRECT RELATIONS WITH THE

EMPEROR)NEFFECTTHEAMBANBECAMETHEREQUIREDINTERMEDIARIESBETWEEN

THE4IBETANGOVERNMENTANDTHECOURT!LLOFTHESEMEASURESAREAGAIN

PRESENTED AS FURTHER INDICATIONS OF #HINESE SOVEREIGNTY OVER 4IBET )N

RECENTYEARSTHESPECIlCARTICLETHATIMPOSEDTHECOURTSDESIGNATEDMETHOD

FORCHOOSINGANDRECOGNIZINGTHE$ALAI,AMAS0ANCHEN,AMASANDOTHER

IMPORTANTINCARNATELAMASIN4IBETHASRECEIVEDPARTICULARATTENTION4HE

COURTDECREEDTHATAh'OLDEN5RNvWASTOBEUSEDINTHOSECASESWITHTHE

NAMESOFTHEVARIOUSPOSSIBLECANDIDATESFORRECOGNITIONASTHEINCARNATE

LAMABEINGSOUGHTWRITTENDOWNONWOODENLOTSONEOFWHICHWASTOBE

DRAWNFROMTHEURN4HECONTROVERSYOVERTHEMOSTRECENTSELECTIONOFA

  %LLIOT3PERLING

0ANCHEN,AMAHASLED#HINATOPUBLISHANUMBEROFPIECESDEFENDINGTHIS

MEANSOFRECOGNIZINGSUCHINCARNATELAMASASTHEONLYLEGITIMATEMEANS

OFDOINGSO



!LTHOUGH THE EFFECTIVENESS OF #HINESE RULE OVER 4IBET VARIED AS

IMPERIALIST ENCROACHMENT INCREASINGLY ENFEEBLED THE 1ING STATE #HINAS

CLAIMTO4IBETAS#HINESEWRITERSNOTENEVERDIMINISHED4OTHEEXTENTTHAT

ANYIMPETUSFOR4IBETANINDEPENDENCEEXISTEDATTHISTIMEITISSAIDTOHAVE

ORIGINATEDWITHIMPERIALISTPOWERSPRIMARILY"RITAINBUTALSOTSARIST2USSIA

7HILETHESEIMPERIALISTNATIONSWEREFOISTINGhUNEQUALTREATIESvON#HINA

TO ADVANCE THEIR COLONIALIST AMBITIONS THEY WERE USING SIMILAR LEGALISTIC

COVERTOMASKTHEIRINTENTIONSOFSEPARATING4IBETFROM#HINA!SERIESOF

TREATIESANDAGREEMENTSTHATWEREFORCEDON#HINAORNEGOTIATEDBETWEEN

"RITAINAND2USSIAWEREDESIGNEDTOWEAKEN#HINESERULEOVER4IBET



4HE

MOSTBLATANTSTEPINTHISREGARDHOWEVERWASTHE"RITISHMARCHON,HASA

IN n 4HE 4IBETAN DEFEAT PRODUCED A TREATY CONVENTION BETWEEN

"RITAINAND4IBETTHATWASSUBSEQUENTLYRENEGOTIATEDBETWEEN"RITAINAND

THE 1ING4HESE TREATIES INCLUDED THE COMMON HUMILIATING ELEMENTS OF

FOREIGNOCCUPATIONOF#HINESETERRITORYTHE#HUMBI6ALLEYIN4IBETAND

ANINDEMNITYORIGINALLYIMPOSEDON4IBETBUTLATERINTHERENEGOTIATION

WITHTHE1INGSHOULDEREDBY#HINA

7ITHINTHEGENERALNARRATIVEOF4IBETANHISTORYPREVALENTINTHE02#

THE FALL OF THE1ING DID NOT AFFECT THESTATUS OF4IBET4HE 2EPUBLICOF

#HINA WHICH WAS PROCLAIMED AT THE TIME RETAINED SOVEREIGNTY OVER ALL

THE REALMS OF THE FORMER IMPERIAL DYNASTY AND IN NO WAY RELINQUISHED

ANY CLAIM TO 4IBET .EVERTHELESS #HINESE WRITERS NOTE THE 2EPUBLICAN

PERIOD WAS ONE IN WHICH THERE WEREDISTINCT DISAGREEMENTS BETWEEN THE

4IBETANGOVERNMENTANDTHE#HINESECENTRALGOVERNMENTDIFFERENCESTHAT

WEREEXACERBATEDBY"RITISHMACHINATIONSAIMEDATDETACHING4IBETFROM

#HINA3TILLTHEREWEREPATRIOTICELEMENTSWITHINTHE4IBETANGOVERNMENT

INCLUDINGBOTHTHETHIRTEENTH$ALAI,AMAANDTHENINTH0ANCHEN,AMA

WHO WERE CONCERNED ABOUT THE UNITY OF #HINA 4HE #HINESE CENTRAL

GOVERNMENTSEVERALTIMESSENTOFlCIALSTOMEETANDDISCUSSTHERELATIONSHIP

BETWEENITSELFANDTHE4IBETANLOCALGOVERNMENT)NDEEDTHE$ALAI,AMA

INDICATEDTHATHEHOPEDTOIMPROVETHOSERELATIONS



(OWEVERTHEREWERE

SOMEFACTIONSIN THE4IBETANLOCALGOVERNMENTWHOWERESWAYED BY THE

"RITISHANDWHOUPUNTILTHE0EACEFUL,IBERATIONOF4IBETWERECONVINCED

THATTHEYCOULDSEPARATE4IBETFROM#HINA4HESE DREAMSPROVEDEMPTY

AND4IBETWASlNALLYREUNITEDWITH#HINAIN



 4HE4IBET#HINA#ONmICT 

4HE%VOLUTIONOFTHE4IBETAN0OSITION

7HATCONSTITUTESTHE4IBETANNARRATIVEOF3INO4IBETANRELATIONSISFRANKLY

FARLESSDETAILEDTHOUGHALSOLESSHOMOGENEOUSTHANTHE#HINESENARRATIVE

GIVENTHATTHEREHASNOTBEENAHIGHLYCENTRALIZED

EFFORT IN 4IBETAN EXILE SOCIETY TO DELINEATE THE

DETAILS OF4IBETS RELATIONSHIP TO #HINA )NDEED

EVENSOMETHINGAS BASIC ASTHEPOINTIN TIME AT

WHICH4IBETlNALLY FELL UNDER 02# DOMINATION

HAS DIFFERED IN VARIOUS ACCOUNTS -ANY OF THE

SEAMSSTILLSHOWINTHECASETHAT4IBETANSINEXILE

HAVE CONSTRUCTED FOR4IBETAN INDEPENDENCEAS

THEYDOWITHTHE#HINESECASE

-UCH OF THE 4IBETAN ADVOCACY ON THE SUBJECT OF 4IBETS HISTORICAL

STATUSISSTRIKINGBOTHFORTHEPREPONDERANCEOF%NGLISHLANGUAGESOURCE

MATERIALSUSEDASTHEBASISFORITSARGUMENTSANDFORTHEEXTENTTOWHICH

4IBETANSDEALINGWITHTHEISSUEPRODUCETHEIRARGUMENTSIN%NGLISH4HIS

USEOF%NGLISHISNOTUNIVERSALHOWEVERTHELARGEHISTORICALACCOUNTOF4IBET

BY2TSISDPON:HWASGABPA$BANGPHYUGBDELDANDREWEXTENSIVELYON

4IBETANHISTORICALSOURCESMANYQUITERAREATTHETIMEITWASWRITTEN9ET

EVENTHATACCOUNTWASORIGINALLYPUBLISHEDINASHORTENED%NGLISHVERSION

YEARSBEFORETHEFULLERTWOVOLUME4IBETANTEXTAPPEARED



)NMOSTOTHER

WRITINGSON4IBETSSTATUSCOMINGFROMTHE4IBETANSIDETHEPREDOMINANCE

OF%NGLISH IS APRODUCTOF LOCATIONTHEHAPPENSTANCEOF EXILE IN)NDIA

WHERE %NGLISH IS THE ESTABLISHED LANGUAGE OF MODERN SCHOLARSHIP AND

RESEARCH )T HAS MEANT HOWEVER THAT 4IBETAN SOURCE MATERIALS FORM A

MORE MEAGER PART OF THE EVIDENTIARY CASE MADE BY 4IBETAN EXILES )N

COMPARISON#HINESEWRITERSMAKEAMPLEUSEOF#HINESESOURCEMATERIALS

INTHEIRASSERTIONS4HEYMAKEUSEOF4IBETANSOURCESASWELLALBEITOFTEN

INTRANSLATION

4HISLACKOF4IBETANLANGUAGESOURCESREmECTSITSELFINTHETENOROFTHE

DISCUSSIONONTHE4IBETANSIDE7HEREASPRESENTDAY#HINESEWRITERSEVINCEA

DESIRETOPROFFERACASETHATHASTHEAIROFSCIENTIlCEXACTITUDEINTERMSOFDATES

ANDEVENTSSTRIVINGFOREXAMPLETOPLACE4IBETSINCORPORATIONINTO#HINA

INTHE9UANPERIODTHE4IBETANVIEWHASOFTENSEEMEDUNCLEARANDCENTERED

AROUNDLESSTANGIBLE NOTIONS4HEREIS NOSMALLAMOUNTOFIRONYATTACHED

TOTHISFORTHE4IBETANDELEGATIONTOTHE3IMLACONFERENCEOFnIS

WELLKNOWNFORHAVINGATTENDEDARMEDWITHSUBSTANTIVE4IBETANLITERARYAND

ARCHIVALEVIDENCECONCERNINGBOTH4IBETSSTATUSANDITSBOUNDARIES

THEPOINTINTIMEAT

WHICH4IBETlNALLYFELL

UNDER02#DOMINATION

HASDIFFEREDINVARIOUS

ACCOUNTS

  %LLIOT3PERLING

)NSUBSEQUENTYEARSHOWEVERAVAGUENESSSETINWITHREGARDTOBOTH

DELINEATING4IBETSSTATUSINTERNATIONALLYANDSTRUCTURINGITSDEALINGSWITH

PRE#HINA!RECURRINGELEMENTTHATISSTILLANIMPORTANTPARTOFTHE

CASE4IBETANSHAVEBEENMAKINGISWHATISCONVENTIONALLYTERMEDIN%NGLISH

THEhPRIESTPATRONvRELATIONSHIPIN4IBETANMCHODYON!SWEWILLSEEFOR

MANY4IBETANWRITERSTHEENTIRERELATIONSHIPOF4IBETTO#HINAHINGESON

THISCONCEPTONESOSPECIlCTOTHE4IBETAN"UDDHISTWORLDSOTHEYSAYTHAT

ITISDIFlCULTTORELATEITTO7ESTERNNOTIONSOFSOVEREIGNAUTHORITY

!SJUSTNOTEDTHE4IBETANDELEGATIONCAMETO3IMLAINnWITH

ARESEARCHEDSTATEMENTABOUTTHEEXTENTOF4IBETSTERRITORIESANDFRONTIERS

4HEREWASNOHESITANCYINTHEIRASSERTIONSTHAT4IBETWASACOUNTRYSEPARATE

FROM #HINA !S TO WHETHER IT HAD BEEN A VASSAL STATE OR NOT UNDER THE

1INGTHE4IBETANREPRESENTATIVEINASTATEMENTDATED/CTOBER

CONTENDED THAT h4IBET AND #HINA HAVE NEVER BEEN UNDER EACH OTHER

ANDWILLNEVER ASSOCIATE WITH EACHOTHERIN;THE= FUTUREv



4HE #HINESE

REPRESENTATIVERESPONDEDWITHHISOWNSTATEMENTON/CTOBERPROPOSING

ASETTLEMENTTHAT WOULD REQUIREAGREEMENThTHAT4IBETFORMS ANINTEGRAL

PART OF THETERRITORY OF 2EPUBLIC OF #HINAv



4HE MEANING OF hINTEGRAL

PARTvISSOMEWHATCOLOREDBYTHECONCESSIONS#HINAWASWILLINGTOMAKE

4IBETWOULDNOTBECONVERTEDINTOA#HINESEPROVINCEANDWOULDCONDUCT

ITSFOREIGNANDMILITARYAFFAIRSUNDER#HINESEGUIDANCE



)NTHE4IBETANSTATEMENTONEALSOlNDSREFERENCETOTHEPRIESTPATRON

RELATIONSHIPASTHEUNIQUEBASISFORHISTORICALRELATIONSBETWEEN4IBETAND

#HINA

4HERELATIONSBETWEENTHE-ANCHU%MPERORANDTHE0ROTECTOR$ALAI

,AMATHElFTHBECAMELIKETHATOFTHEDISCIPLETOWARDSTHETEACHER

4HESOLEAIMOFTHETHEN'OVERNMENTOF#HINABEINGTOEARNMERITS

FORTHISANDTHENEXTLIFETHEYHELPEDANDHONOUREDTHESUCCESSIVE

$ALAI,AMASANDTREATEDTHEMONKSOFALLTHEMONASTERIESWITHRESPECT

4HUSFRIENDSHIPUNITEDTHETWOCOUNTRIESLIKETHEMEMBERSOFTHESAME

FAMILY4HE4IBETANSTOOKNONOTICEOFTHEIRBOUNDARYWITH#HINAFOR

THEYTHOUGHTTHATTHEACTIONSOFTHELATTERWEREALLMEANTFORTHEGOOD

OF4IBET

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