Snyder T. The Reconstruction of Nations Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569-1999. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2004. 384 p
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. Warsaw later reversed its position and reneged on its deal with Moscow in order to sup-
port Ukraine. In Polish energy policy was more pro-Ukrainian than was Ukrainian
energy policy; such a posture proved difficult to sustain in . These issues were unre-
solved when this volume went to press, and will remain a key dimension of European se-
curity for decades. Fear of gas dispute: RFE Daily Report, April ; on Ukrainian en-
ergy problems and foreign policy, Arkady Toritsin, “Political Economy and Foreign
Policy in Post-Soviet Successor States,” Doctoral dissertation, Rutgers University, .
“Anti-Ukrainian act”: Stephen Burant, “Poland’s Eastern Policy, –,” Problems
of Post-Communism, , (), . Major Lysenko: Burant, “Ukraine and East Central
Europe,” .
. On Krauchanka: Gazeta Wyborcza, July , ; Jacek Gorzkowski, “Litwa,” in
Marek Beylin, ed., Europa S
´
rodkowo-Wschodnia , Warsaw: ISP, , ; Kultura,
(), –; on the intellectuals, Stephen Burant, “Belarus and the Belarusian
Irredenta in Lithuania,” Nationalities Papers, , (), –.
. On Shushkevich: Siergiej Owsiannik and Jelena Strielkowa, W¬adza i spo¬eczen´stwo,
Warsaw: Presspublica, , –; on Lithuania: Gorzkowski, “Litwa,” .
. Tadeusz Gawin, Ojcowizna, Hrodna: Fundacja Pomocy Szkolom Polskim, , –
; Stanislaw Bielen´, “Kierunki polityki wschodniej III Rzeczypospolitej,” in Patrza˛c
na wschód, Warsaw: Centrum Badan´ Wschodnich, , ; “Polska—Ukraina—
Bialorus,” ; Thomas Szayna, “Ethnic Poles in Lithuania and Belarus,” Rand Report,
August , .
. By redrawing diocese boundaries to reflect the contemporary Belarusian border, and by
selecting an archbishop who was more sensitive to Belarusian concerns.
. There was some early discussion of national minorities as such: Narodnaia gazeta
(Minsk), January , ; February , . The estimate of the Belarusian minority
in Poland in is from Piotr Eberhardt, Mie˛dzy Rosja˛ i Niemcami, Warsaw: PWN,
, . The Polish minority in Belarus is calculated according to the Soviet and
Belarusian censuses.
. Kathleen Mihailisko, “Security Issues in Ukraine and Belarus,” in Regina Owen Carp,
ed., Central and Eastern Europe, Oxford: Oxford University Press, , –; Bu-
rant, “Belarusian Irredenta,” –.
. Warsaw PAP, April , in FBIS-EEU, April , .
. Burant, “International Relations,” ; Rocznik Polskiej Polityki Zagranicznej , .
. Quotation from Tadeusz Kosobudzki, “Stracone szansy,” Kultura, (), ; see
also Warsaw PAP, November , in FBIS-EEU, November , ; RFE Daily
Report, November .
. Interview with Czeslaw Okin´czyc, Vilnius, April ; Widacki, “Stosunki polsko-
litewskie,” .
. Gazeta Wyborcza, – September , ; September, ; Landsbergis quotation
from September , . The two men did meet informally when Landsbergis passed
through Warsaw in transit.
. Tass World Service, January , SWB/SU, January ; PAP, January ,
SWB/SU, January .
. Warsaw PAP, January , in FBIS-EEU, January , .
Notes to Pages 266–270
344
. Timothy Snyder, “National Myths and International Relations: Poland and Lithuania,
–,” East European Politics and Societies, , () –; Widacki, “Stosunki
polsko-litewskie,” , for quotation.
. Skubiszewski, Polityka zagraniczna, –.
. Vilnius Radio, September , in FBIS-SOV, September , ; Rzeczpospolita,
– October , ; Tallinn BNS, October , in FBIS-SOV, , October ,
; Dokumentation Ostmitteleuropa, , – (April ), –.
. Gazeta Wyborcza, April , . For his historical views on Polish culture, Barbara
Christophe, Staat versus Identität, Cologne: Wissenschaft und Politik, , –.
. Quotations from Warsaw S¬owo Powszechne, FBIS-SOV, November , ; RFE
Daily Report, July . See also Audrius Butkevicius, “The Baltic Region,” NATO
Review, , (), –. He seems to have changed his mind on NATO enlargement in
, after it became Lithuanian policy. His vision of Lithuanian state interests was less
clear later in the decade, when he was convicted of taking a bribe while a parliamentary
deputy, and when he accused Landsbergis of working for the KGB. The point of naming
individuals here is not to create heroes, but to describe the domestic politics of strategic
decisions.
. Snyder, “National Myths,” . This was after Skubiszewski’s term had ended, and was
precipitated by a special mission by Wale˛sa’s aide Andrzej Zakrzewski and the head of
the Polish delegation Iwo Byczewski. It should still be seen as an accomplishment of the
– period.
. Louisa Vinton, “Domestic Politics and Foreign Policy, –,” in Ilya Prizel and
Andrew Michta, eds., Polish Foreign Policy Reconsidered, New York: St. Martin’s, , ;
Rocznik Polskiej Polityki Zagranicznej –, .
. Public opinion on Ukraine and Ukrainians: Grzegorz Babin´ski, Pogranicze polsko-ukrain´-
skie, Cracow: Nomos, , –; Andrzej Zie˛ba, “Ukrain´cy w oczach Polaków,” in
Teresa Walas, ed., Narody i stereotypy, Cracow: Mie˛dzynarodowe Centrum Kultury, ,
–; Antonina Kloskowska, Kultury narodowe u korzeni, Warsaw: PWN, , ;
Warsaw PAP, February , in FBIS-EEU, February , ; Z
˙
ycie Warszawy, Au-
gust , . See also Marek Skórka, “Wspólne sa˛siedztwo czy nie chciani intruzi?”
Wie˛z´, (), –.
. One sign of just how far matters had proceeded is that Battling Solidarity (Solidarnos´c´
Walcza˛ca), a radical labor union on the right, entered international politics with a
pro-Ukrainian little tome including apologies for Operation Vistula. Stosunki Polsko-
Ukrain´skie –, Warsaw: Perturbancii, .
. Jacek Raciborski, Polskie wybory, Warsaw: Scholar, , ; Kultura, – (), ;
Gazeta Wyborcza, September , ; Rocznik Polskiej Polityki Zagranicznej , ;
Prizel, “Warsaw’s Ostpolitik,” in Prizel and Michta, Polish Foreign Policy Reconsidered,
; Rzeczpospolita, January , ; Gazeta Wyborcza, January , .
. The other major exception to the consensus was the Polish Senate’s funding of an orga-
nization, Polish Community, which opposed Skubiszewski’s policy by materially sup-
porting organizations claiming to represent the Polish minority in Lithuania regardless
of their political aims. From this group came Polish activists who argued that Poland
should place the interests of Polish minorities above those in good relations with the
Notes to Pages 270–275
345
nation-states to the east. Interview with Agnieszka Panecka, Warsaw, February ;
Andrzej Stelmachowski, “O debacie,” Wspólnota Polska, (April ), . See also
Widacki, “Stosunki polsko-litewskie” and Natalla Piatrowicz, “Katolicyzm na Bialo-
rusi,” Wie˛z´, (), .
. This assertion is based upon a reading of the parliamentary record for –. On the
right, see Sprawozdanie Stenograficzne (), February , –; (), May ,
–; (), October , –.
. A role for which he was later recognized with the Order of Prince Iaroslav the Wise by
Ukraine. Polityka i kul’tura (Kyiv), – September , –.
. As he put it to the Senate: “Let us recall what various politicians have forgotten and still
forget, that a Poland which lacks regulated, good and friendly relations with its eastern
neighbors stops counting as a partner for the West.” Skubiszewski, Polityka zagraniczna,
.
. Lech Wale˛sa, “List do wyborców,” April ; Literaturna Ukraina (Kyiv), June
, ; May , ; Lithuania, – (), –; Moscow Itar-Tass, June
, in FBIS-SOV, June , ; Kultura, – (), –.
. “Security for Europe Project Final Report,” ; and Kloskowska, Kultury narodowe u kor-
zeni, .
CHAPTER 14. ENVOI: RETURNS TO EUROPE
. On East European domestic politics and EU leverage, Milada Anna Vachudová, “The
Systemic and Domestic Determinants of East European Foreign Policies,” Doctoral dis-
sertation, University of Oxford, .
. Klaus Bachmann, “Nasza i wasza wolnos´c´,” Rzeczpospolita, January .
. Foreign Minister Andrzej Olechowski tried to reengage the eastern neighbors in ,
but was thwarted by Prime Minister Waldemar Pawlak.
. Gazeta Wyborcza, January , .
. Ibid., March , ; March , ; July , ; Segodnia, June , ; Kom-
mersant Daily, June , ; Russkii Telegraf, June . On the consequences of
NATO enlargement, Stephen Burant, Problems of Post-Communism, , (), –
.
. Opinion poll data in Yuri Levada, “After the Thaw,” Wilson Quarterly, , , (), .
. Gazeta Wyborcza, June , .
. Ustina Markus, “Belarus: You Can’t Go Home Again?” Current History, , (),
–.
. Minsk News, November , .
. The quotations: (IMF) Marek Karp, Gazeta Wyborcza, – July , – Rzecz-
pospolita, January , ; (wives) Rzeczpospolita, August , . See also Gazeta
Wyborcza, August , ; Minsk News, December , ; Gazeta Wyborcza, July
, ; Siarhej Ausiannik and Alena Stralkowa, “Bialorus´,” in Europa S
´
rodkowo-wschod-
nia, Warsaw: ISP PAN, , . See also David Marples, Belarus, Amsterdam: Har-
wood, , –.
. M. Koszelew, “Polacy w oczach Bialorusinów,” Dzieje Najnowsze, , (), –;
Notes to Pages 275–280
346
Natalla Piatrowicz, “Katolicyzm na Bialorusi,” Wie˛z´, (), –; Ryszard Rad-
zik, “Ruski i Pan—asymetria stereotypu,” Europa S
´
rodkowo-wschodnia, –; Ulad-
zimier Padhol, “W oczach ‘sowka,’” ibid., –; Minsk News, – March , . Be-
larusians do see Poland as part of the capitalist West. Marek S
´
liwin´ski and Valerijus
C
ˇ
ekmonas, “S
´
wiadomos´c´ narodowa mieszkan´ców Litwy i Bialorusi,” Przegla˛d Wschodni,
, (), .
. Interview with Stanislau Shushkevich, December ; “Chronicle, March –Feb-
ruary ,” Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs; Minsk News, – February , ;
Gazeta Wyborcza, February , ; G¬os znad Niemna (Hrodna), – January , .
. Itogi perepisi naseleniia Respubliki Belarus goda, Minsk: Ministerstvo Statistiki,
. About percent of “passport Belarusians” claimed in surveys that they are Rus-
sians, but then again about percent of “passport Russians” in Belarus say that they are
Belarusians. S
´
liwin´ski and C
ˇ
ekmonas, “S
´
wiadomos´c´ narodowa mieszkan´ców Litwy i
Bialorusi,” .
. A theme pursued by Roman Szporluk: consult chapters and of Russia, Ukraine, and
the Breakup of the Soviet Union (Stanford, Calif., ).
. On wartime losses: Marceli Kosman, Historia Bia¬orusi, Wroclaw: Ossolineum, ,
; Piotr Eberhardt, Mie˛dzy Rosja˛ a Niemcami, Warsaw: PWN, , . On Neo-Uni-
ates, Siarhej Ablamiejka, “Problem statystyki parafii neounickich na terenie Zachodniej
Bialorusi,” in Jan Sergiusz Gajek and Stanislow Nabywaniec, eds., Unia Brzeska z per-
spektiwy czterech stuleci, Lublin: KUL, , . On urbanization, Chauncy Harris,
Cities of the Soviet Union, Chicago: McNally, , . On Pazniak see Jan Zaprudnik,
Belarus, Boulder, Colo.: Westview, , ; also Wlodzimierz Pawluczuk, “Bialorus´ i
sprawa polska,” Kultura, (), –.
. Steven Guthier, “The Belorussians: National Identification and Assimilation,” Soviet
Studies, , (), ; Nicholas Vakar, Belorussia, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Uni-
versity Press, , –; David Marples, Belarus, London: Macmillan, , –;
Zaprudnik, Belarus, ; Lilia Diamieszka, “Takie ksia˛z˙ ki powinny byc´ trzymane w
wyja˛tkowo dobrze zamknie˛tych szafach,” in Inna Bia¬orus´, Warsaw: CSM, , .
. Gazeta Wyborcza, April , . See also “Polska polityka zagraniczna w roku,”
Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, ; Joz´ef Oleksy, “Toast at the Official Dinner
Given in his Honour by Mr. Adolfas Slezivicius,” September ; Gazeta Wyborcza,
January , , .
. Minority organizations’ demands for territorial autonomy continued to go unheeded by
Warsaw, and were considered less threatening in Vilnius. Wanda Marcinkiewicz, “Kro-
nika litewska ,” Lithuania, – (), .
. Rzeczpospolita, April , ; January , ; OMRI Daily Digest, January .
. Address at Harvard University, November .
. On the right, Ukrains’ka Respub’likans’ka Partia, Kyiv: Fond Demokratii, ; Narodnyi
Ruch Ukrainy, Kyiv: Fond Demokratii, ; Ukraina: Stanovlennia Demokratii, Kyiv:
Ahentsvo Ukraina, , ; Ukrains’ka Natsional’na Asambleia, Kyiv: Ahentsvo Ukraina,
, . On Ukrainians generally, compare Wiktor Neboz˙ enko, “Ukrain´ska opinia
publiczna o polityce zagranicznej,” Polska w Europie, (July–August ), , and
Evhen Golovakha and Ilko Kucheriv, “NATO and Public Opinion in Ukraine,” Politi-
Notes to Pages 280–286
347
cal Portrait of Ukraine, (), . For analysis, Jaroslaw Hrycak, “Jeszcze raz o sto-
sunku Ukrain´ców do Polaków,” Wie˛z˙ , (), –; Olga Iwaniak, “Zamoz˙ niejsi
kuzyni,” Rzeczpospolita, May , .
. Interview with Anton Buteiko, March , Cambridge, Mass.; Polityka i kul’tura
(Kyiv), – December , .
. Holos Ukrainy (Kyiv), June , .
. Kultura, – (), –; Antoni Kamin´ski and Jerzy Kozakiewicz, Stosunki
polsko-ukrain´skie, Warsaw: Instytut Spraw Dublicznych, ; Wladislaw Gill and Nor-
bert Gill, Stusunki Polski z Ukraina˛, To r u n´: Marszalek, , ; Rocznik Polskiej Polityki
Zagranicznej , ; Rocznik Polskiej Polityki Zagranicznej , ; Rzeczpospolita,
March , .
. For the text, Rzeczpospolita, May , ; in English in Tadeusz Piotrowski, ed., Geno-
cide and Rescue in Wo¬yn, Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, , –. See also Den’
(Kyiv), May , ; Nashe Slovo (Warsaw), April , .
. Anatolii Martsynovs’kyi, “Prymyrennia davno prymyrenykh,” Holos Ukrainy (Kyiv),
May , ; also worth consulting are essays by Iuri Andrukhovych. The most articulate
critic writing in Polish is the German Klaus Bachmann. See Polska kaczka—europejski
staw, Warsaw: CSM, , and passim.
. The Ukrainian parliament was less important, and parliamentary ties never matched
Lithuanian-Polish levels. Interview with Borys Andresiuk, Cambridge, Mass., Sep-
tember .
. Interview with Aleksander Kwas´niewski, May , Warsaw, Poland.
.Wlodzimierz Derczyn´ski and Robert Draczyk, “Stosunek Polaków do innych naro-
dowos´ci,” Warsaw: CBOS, August , .
. Gazeta Wyborcza, – September , –.
. See Chris Hann, “Postsocialist Nationalism,” Slavic Review, , (), –; Poli-
tyka (Warsaw), December , ; OMRI Daily Digest, October .
. The first seven volumes in Polish are Polska—Ukraina: Trudne pytania, Warsaw: Karta,
–; in Ukrainian as Ukraina—Pol’shcha: Vazhki pytannia. I was present at the
sixth and eighth conferences, in and .
. Peter Andreas and Timothy Snyder, eds., The Wall Around the West, Lanham, Md.: Row-
man and Littlefield, .
. The relevant EU document: Treaty of Amsterdam, Conference of the Representatives of
the Governments of the Member States, Brussels, September ; on German con-
cerns: Gazeta Wyborcza, February , ; February , .
. Minsk News, – February , ; – March , ; Gazeta Wyborcza, March
, .
. Den’ (Kyiv), February , ; Yaroslav Hrytsak, “National Identities in Post-Soviet
Ukraine,” in Zvi Gitelman, et al., eds., Cultures and Nations of Central and Eastern Eu-
rope, Cambridge, Mass.: Ukrainian Research Institute, , .
. Gazeta Wyborcza, – November , . His Ukrainian counterpart’s comparison of
the EU external border to a new “Iron Curtain” is overdrawn, but it does call attention
to the consequences of EU policy for the EU’s eastern neighbors and for Europe itself.
Notes to Pages 286–292
348
Ukrainian Foreign Minister Borys Tarasiuk at the inaugural meeting of the Ukrainian-
Polish conference on European integration, Warsaw, March .
. Gazeta Wyborcza, April , ; Macieja Falkowska, Spo¬eczen´stwo polskie wobec wschod-
niej polityki wizowej, gospodarczej, i kulturalnej, Warsaw: CBOS, February , –.
. Vysokyi zamok (L’viv), – January , .
Notes to Page 292
349
Acknowledgments
I wrote the introduction to this book in a carrel by a window. As I was
writing, I heard bits of familiar birdsongs, one after the other. I turned
to see a brown thrasher, perched on the sill outside, looking at me
through the glass. Thrashers are mimics, and this one knew half a
dozen songs. Repeating phrases from each song exactly twice, he
moved through his songbook from beginning to end, drawing to-
gether strains from forest and seashore. He stood a foot away from my
hand. When I raised my pen to record his songs, he made a grave little
bow and flew away.
This is my grave little bow. A few people have followed this project
from its genesis at Oxford to its conclusion at Yale, among them Tim-
othy Garton Ash and Thomas W. Simons Jr. My initial approach was
influenced by Leszek Kolakowski and the late Isaiah Berlin. Early ef-
forts to connect history, myth, and policy were encouraged by
Stephen Peter Rosen and the late Richard Smoke. Roman Szporluk,
Andrzej Walicki, and Piotr Wandycz offered steady critique over sev-
eral years. Several friends and colleagues read full drafts, among them
Stephen Burant, Jeremy King, Eric Lohr, Stuart Rachels, Oxana Shevel,
350
and Kieran Williams. Andrzej Paczkowski, Mary Elise Sarotte, Milada Anna
Vachudová, and Tomas Venclova offered useful criticisms of large parts of the
manuscript. For their attention to particular chapters I thank Chris Boyer,
David Brandenberger, Kate Brown, Peter Holquist, Yaroslav Isaievich, Victor
Hugo Lane, Terry Martin, Grzegorz Motyka, Richard Turits, Nerijus Udrenas,
Theodore Weeks, Rafal Wnuk, and Larry Wolff. On questions of special diffi-
culty I turned to Laura Belin, Audrey Helfant Budding, Michael Flier, Yaroslav
Hrytsak, Katarzyna Jesien´, Joshua Katz, Edward Keenan, and Mark Kramer.
Keith Darden, Wladyslaw Filar, Chris Hann, Ihor Il’iushyn, Jeffrey Kopstein,
Grzegorz Kostrzewa-Zorbas, Dmitry Koublitsky, Leszek Jesien´, Michael Mac-
Queen, Pawel S
´
wieboda, and Jason Wittenberg supplied me with ideas and
sources. Jeffrey Burds and Jagoda Hernik Spalin´ska deserve special mention for
their generosity with their own research. Fruitful directions of inquiry were
suggested by Peter Andreas, Aaron Belkin, John Czaplicka, Norman Davies,
Volodymyr Dibrova, the late Jerzy Giedroyc, Jerzy Jedlicki, Tony Judt, Charles
Maier, Sean Pollack, Antony Polonsky, Peter Potichnyj, and Veljko Vujac´icˇ.
I benefited from the reactions of my seminar students Serhyi Bilenky, Steven
Seegel, Anna Sluz, and Steven Swerdlow. In general, my ideas improved enor-
mously after public presentation, and I feel very fortunate to have had the op-
portunity to discuss this work with interested audiences. I would like to thank
participants of twelve seminars at Harvard University; three at the Institut für
die Wissenschaften vom Menschen in Vienna; three at the University of Ox-
ford (one at All Souls, two at St. Antony’s); and two at the University of Vir-
ginia. I would also like to thank those who attended lectures at the Institute of
History of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Central European University, the
University of Colorado at Boulder, Columbia University, Georgetown Univer-
sity, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the University of North Car-
olina at Chapel Hill, Stanford University, and Yale University; as well as those
who attended policy conferences organized by the Kolegium Europejskie in
Warsaw, the EastWest Institute in Kyiv, the Euro-Atlantic Center in Chisinau,
and the Wilson Center in Washington. The International Union of Home
Army Soldiers and the Union of Ukrainians in Poland kindly allowed me to ob-
serve Polish-Ukrainian conferences at the Polish Military Academy in Rem-
bertów. The people who agreed to be interviewed, recorded in the notes, were
very gracious. Jonathan Brent, Larisa Heimert, and Margaret Otzel coura-
geously undertook the production of this book; I am particularly grateful to
Gavin Lewis for careful editing. For the accuracy of fact and the totality of in-
terpretation of this book I alone take responsibility.
Acknowledgments
351
The project would have been unthinkable in its present form without the
open stacks of the Widener Library at Harvard and the Sterling Library at Yale.
I am also grateful to the institutions that made available the illustrations. Fig-
ures , , , , , and are courtesy of Reference Library of the Ukrainian
Research Institute, Harvard University. The photograph reproduced in Figure
19 is found in the Stephania Halychyn Collection, the others in the Bohdan
Krawciw Collection. Thanks are due to Robert De Lossa, Daria Yurchuk, and
Ksenya Kiebuzinski for help in reproducing these photographs. Figures , ,
, , , , and appear courtesy of the United States Holocaust Memorial
Museum, Washington, D.C. Of these, figures , , and originate from the
YIVO Institute for Jewish Research, from the Muzeum Wojska Polskiego,
10 from the Lithuanian Central State Archives, and from George Kaddish. I
thank those who made their photographs available to the Museum, and the
Museum for facilitating their further use. Figures , , , , , and , by the
American photographer Louise Arner Boyd, are courtesy of the American Ge-
ographical Society in New York. Photographs of interwar Vilnius by Jerzy
Hoppen (figure ) and Edmund Zdanowski and Boleslawa Zdanowska (figures
and ) are used by permission of the Muzeum Narodowe in Warsaw. Figure
was reproduced from Jerzy Giedroyc and Krzysztof Pomian, Autobiografia
na cztery re˛ce, Warsaw: Czytelnik, , and is used by permission of the Insty-
tut Literacki, Paris. Figure 1, a reproduction of a woodcut by Frantsysk Ska-
ryna, was executed by Liavon Tsimafeevich Barazna; Jan Zaprudnik and Adam
Maldzis answered questions about their reproduction. Figure , a photograph
of an Ostroh Bible, was taken by the author with the permission of the Cherni-
hiv Museum of History, Ukraine. The maps were drawn by Jonathan Wyss of
Topaz Maps.
This book was conceived in Oxford, Paris, Vienna, and Prague; researched
in Warsaw, Vilnius, Minsk, Kyiv, L’viv, and along state borders; composed in
Cambridge, Massachusetts; and completed in New Haven, Connecticut. For
financial support I am grateful to the International Research and Exchange
Board, the Institut für die Wissenschaften vom Menschen, the American
Council of Learned Societies, the Olin Institute for Strategic Studies, and the
Harvard Academy for International and Area Studies. Samuel Huntington di-
rected the latter two institutions during my time at Harvard, and it is to his
courtesy and toleration that I owe three fruitful years. Thanks are also due to
Chet Haskell, Beth Hastie, and Ira Kukin for their work for the Harvard Acad-
emy. Occasional expenses were subsidized by the EU Center of Harvard Uni-
versity, the MIT-Mellon Project on Forced Migration, and the Ukrainian Re-
Acknowledgments
352
search Institute. This project would have been impossible without travel and
thus without hospitality, in particular that of Larysa and the late Serhyi Shevel
in Kyiv, and Agnieszka and Andrzej Was´kiewicz in Warsaw. It also required
public places in which to read, write, and rephrase. A nostalgic cup of late-night
black coffee is raised to Cafés Pamplona in Cambridge, Museum in Vienna,
Slavia in Prague, Nowy S
´
wiat in Warsaw, and Au St. Michel in Paris (now, I be-
lieve, defunct).
Acknowledgments
353