Snyder T. The Reconstruction of Nations Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569-1999. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2004. 384 p
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. Narbutt, Dzieje narodu litewskiego, Vol. , –; Krapauskas, Nationalism and Histo-
riography, .
. Wiktor Weintraub, The Poetry of Adam Mickiewicz, The Hague: Mouton, , . The
work in question is Preussens ältere Geschichte, vols., Riga: Hartmann, .
. On Mickiewicz in France, Andrzej Walicki, Philosophy and Romantic Nationalism, Notre
Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, , –.
. See Vladimír Macura, Znamení zrodu, Prague: H&H, , –, for a model argu-
ment about language and national revival. Lithuanian activists also wished to show that
Mickiewicz was a Lithuanian in an ethnic and not only a political sense, seeking evi-
dence that he knew the Lithuanian language. In general, history as compensation for
impotence is as old as, well, history. See Anthony Grafton, The Footnote, Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, , .
. Cited after Czeslaw Milosz, “Rodziewiczówna,” Kultura, (), .
. Pelissier, Les principaux artisans, –; Venclova, “Native Realm Revisited,” .
. Bardach, “Polacy Litewscy i inne narody Litwy historycznej,” in Kloczowski, Belarus,
Lithuania, Poland, Ukraine, .
. Ryszard Radzik, “Samookres´lenie jako element s´wiadomos´ci etnicznej ludu bialorus-
kiego w XIX wieku,” Przegla˛d Wschodni, , (), .
. Valerius Czekmonas, “O etapach socjolingwistycznej historii Wilen´szczyzny i rozwoju
polskiej s´wiadomos´ci narodowej na Litwie,” in Kloczowski, Belarus, Lithuania, Poland,
Ukraine, –.
.Waclaw Je˛drzejewicz, Kronika Z
˙
ycia Józeja Pi¬sudskiego, vol. , London: Polska Fundacja
Kulturalna, , –.
. Another response was a more internationalist socialism. Kazimierz Kelles-Krauz, the
outstanding Marxist theorist of Pilsudski’s party, was by family origin a Lithuanian Pole.
See my Nationalism, Socialism, and Modern Central Europe, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press for Ukrainian Research Institute, . The young Feliks Dzierz˙ yn´ski
(–) was expelled from his Wilno school for speaking Polish. He turned to in-
ternationalist socialism, joined the Luxemburgian wing of Polish socialism which re-
jected the idea of a reborn Polish state, and ended his career in communist Russia as head
of the Cheka. Robert Blobaum, Feliks Dzierzynski and the SDKPiL, Boulder, Colo.: East
European Monographs, . See also Bohdan Cywin´ski, Rodowody niepokornych, Paris:
Spotkania, ; Norman Naimark, The History of the “Proletariat,” Boulder, Colo.: East
European Monographs, .
. Piotr Wróbel, Ksza¬towanie sie˛ bia¬oruskiej s´wiadomos´ci narodowej a Polska, Warsaw:
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, , .
. Numbers cited after Steven Guthier, “The Belorussians: National Identification and As-
similation,” Soviet Studies, , (), –. On “ethnic groups” and national history
see Jeremy King, “Loyalty and Polity, Nation and State,” Doctoral dissertation, Colum-
bia University, , –. For the defense, Anthony Smith, The Ethnic Origins of Na-
tions, Oxford: Blackwell, .
. M.V. Dounar-Zapolski, Historiia Belarusi, Minsk: Belaruskaia Ents’iklapedia, ,
; Celina Gajkowska, “Wincenty Marcinkiewicz,” Polski S¬ownik Biograficzny, vol. ,
Wroclaw: Ossolineum, , –.
Notes to Pages 37– 42
304
. Mickiewicz cited after A.A. Loika and V.P. Rahoisha, eds., Belarusskaia litaratura XIX
stahoddzia, Minsk: Vyhsheishaia shkola, , ; Dunin cited after his Zbor tvorau,
Minsk: Dziarzhaunae Vydavetstva BSSR, , .
. Jan Czeczot, Piosnki wies´niacze znad Niemna i Dz´winy, Vilnius: Zawadzkiego, . See
also T.V. Valodzina, “Ian Chachot i brat’i T’ishkevich,” in Falklor, Minsk: Belaruskaiia
Navuka, , ; Marceli Kosman, Historia Bia¬orusi, Wroclaw: Ossolineum, , ;
Weintraub, Poetry, ; Arnold McMillin, Die Literatur der Weissrussen, Giessen: Wilhelm
Schmitz, , –.
. Walicki, Philosophy and Romantic Nationalism, .
. Jan Zaprudnik, Belarus, Boulder, Colo.: Westview, , –; Kosman, Historia
Bia¬orusi, .
. Edward Thaden, Russia’s Western Borderlands, –, Princeton, N.J.: Princeton
University Press, , especially , –, , , ; Patricia Grimsted, The Foreign
Ministers of Alexander I, Berkeley: University of California Press, , –.
. Dounar-Zapolski, Historiia Belarusi, .
. Sofia Kuz’niaeva, “Nats’iial’nae adradzhen’ne i nats’iianal’naia s’viadomas’ts’ belarusau u
pershai palove XIX ct.,” Belaruski Histar’ichn’i Ahliad, , (), .
. This is the function the same church served for Ukrainians in Austrian Galicia in the
nineteenth century. State policy mattered because the Uniate Church was in dire straits
in both places in . Uladzimir Sosna, “Uniiatskae pi’tanne u belarusakau viosts’i,” in
M.V. Bich and P.A. Loika, Z histor’ii Uniiatstva u Belarusi, Minsk: Ekaperspekt’iva,
, –.
. L.K. Tarasiuk, “Adliustranne uniatskaii temat’iki u tvorchasts’ Frantsishka Bahushe-
vicha,” in Ryszard Luz˙ ny, Franciszek Ziejka, and Andrzej Ke˛pin´ski, eds., Unia brzeska,
Cracow: Universitas, , –.
. A sense of the church’s institutional range in the s is conveyed by G.I. Shavel’skii,
Posliednee vozsoedinenie s pravoslavnoiu tserkoviiu uniatov Bielorusskoi eparkhii, Peters-
burg, Sel’skago Viestnika, .
. Jan Zaprudnik, “National Consciousness of the Byelarussians and the Road to State-
hood,” in Vitaut Kipel and Zora Kipel, eds., Byelorussian Statehood, New York: Byelorus-
sian Institute of Arts and Sciences, , ; Jan Jurkiewicz, “Nasze widzenie Bialoru-
sinów w XX w.,” Dzieje Najnowsze, , (), .
. Nicholas Vakar, Belorussia, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, , –.
The censor’s recommendation in Frantsishak Bahushevich, Tvory, Minsk: Belarus, ,
–.
. In fairness, Ernest Gellner at some points confronts the problem that modernizing states
sometimes create one, and sometimes create more than one, nation. Nations and Na-
tionalism, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, .
. On Russian elite opinion and the rising, Henryk Gle˛bocki, Fatalna sprawa, Cra-
cow: Arcana, ; M. Prudnikov, Chego zhe khochet Pol’sha? St. Petersburg: Glavnoie
upravleniie voenno-uchebnykh zavedenii, . On peasant self-definition, Radzik,
“Samookres´lenie,” –; M. Koszelew, “Polacy w oczach Bialorusinów,” Dzieje Na-
jnowsze, , (), –.
. On the shift, Theodore Weeks, Nation and State in Late Imperial Russia, Dekalb: North-
Notes to Pages 42–50
305
ern Illinois University Press, , –; Theodore Weeks, “Russification and the Lith-
uanians,” Slavic Review, , , (), ; Dominic Lieven, Nicholas II, New York: St.
Martin’s , –; Witold Rodkiewicz, Russian Nationality Policy, Lublin: Scientific
Society of Lublin, , –; Pelissier, Les principaux artisans, –; O russkoi
pravdie i polskoi krivdie, Moscow: Universitetskaia tipografiia, , –.
. Lukasz Chimiak, Gubernatorzy Rosyjscy w Królestwie Polskim, Wroclaw: FNP, ,
–; Andrzej Chwalba, Polacy w s¬uz˙ bie Moskali, Warsaw: PWN, , ; Paul
Bushkovitch, “The Ukraine in Russian Culture,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas,
, (), –. See also L.E. Gorizontov, Paradoksy imperskoi politiki, Moscow:
Indrik, ; Vakar, Belorussia, . Josif Hurko, governor general of Warsaw and the
most famous Russifier in Polish history, was also of Polish-Lithuanian descent.
CHAPTER 3. THE FIRST WORLD WAR AND THE WILNO QUESTION (1914–1939)
. M.V. Dovnar-Zapol’skii, Narodnoe khoziaistvo Belorussii, – g.g., Gosplana BSSR,
, –.
.A official count of the city found , inhabitants, of whom . percent were
Lithuanian, . percent Russian, . percent Polish, and . percent Jewish. P. Gaucˇas
and A. Vidugiris, “Etnolingvisticheskaia situatsiia litovsko-belorusskogo pogranich’ia,”
Geografiia, (), –. The Russian census counted percent Jews, per-
cent Poles, and percent Lithuanians. Nicholas Vakar, Belorussia, Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, , . See also Zinkevicˇius, History of the Lithuanian Lan-
guage, ; Piotr Eberhardt, “Przemiany narodowos´ciowe na Litwie w XX wieku,”
Przegla˛d Wschodni, , (), –.
. Quotation from , Egidijus Aleksandravicˇius, “Political Goals of Lithuanians, –
,” Journal of Baltic Studies, , (), ; from , Jean Pelissier, Les principaux
artisans de la Renaissance Nationale Lituanienne, Lausanne: Léman, , ; consult
also Alfonsas Eidintas and Vytautas Z
ˇ
alys, Lithuania in European Politics, New York: St.
Martin’s, , ; Piotr Lossowski, Stosunki polsko-litewskie –, Warsaw: Ksia˛z˙ ka
i Wiedza, , –.
. Vitaut Kipel and Zora Kipel, eds., Byelorussian Statehood, New York: Byelorussian Insti-
tute of Arts and Sciences, , –, –, –.
. Adam Maldzis, “Belaruska staulenne da Liublinskai unii,” in Jerzy Kloczowski et al.,
eds., Unia lubelska i tradycje integracyjne w Europie s´rodkowo-wschodniej, Lublin: IESW,
, –.
. Mikhal Bich, “Ad idei adnaulennia Rech’i Paspalitay da barats’b’i za stvarenne nezalezh-
nay belaruskay dziarzhav’i,” in Kloczowski et al., eds., Unia lubelska, .
. Aliaksandr Ts’vikevich, “Zapadno-russizm,” Minsk: Navuka i tekhnika, [], .
. Guthier, “The Belorussians: National Identification and Assimilation,” Soviet Studies,
, (), –; Piotr Eberhardt, Przemiany narodowósciowe na Litwie, Warsaw:
Przegla˛d wschodni, , ; Piotr Eberhardt, Przemiany narodowos´ciowe na Bia¬orusi,
Warsaw: Editions Spotkania, , . These proportions are based on the census,
which collected data on native language.
. On land, Witold Rodkiewicz, Russian Nationality Policy, Lublin: Scientific Society of
Notes to Pages 50–54
306
Lublin, , ; on language, Zofia Kurzowa, Je˛zyk polski Wilen´szczyzny i kresów
pó¬nocno-wschodnich, Warsaw: PWN, , –.
. In this respect, the Polishness of these Poles resembled the Germanness of Austrian lib-
erals, before the turn to mass national politics in Austria. Pieter Judson, Exclusive Revo-
lutionaries, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, .
. Juliusz Bardach, “O s´wiadomos´ci narodowej Polaków na Litwie i Bialorusi,” in Woj-
ciech Wrzezin´ski, ed., Mie˛dzy Polska˛ etniczna˛ i historyczna˛, Wroclaw: Ossolineum, ,
–; Aliaksandar Smalianchuk, “Histar’ichnaia s’viadomas’ts’i idealiohiia paliakau
Belarusi i Litv’i na pachatku XX stahodz’dzia,” Belaruski Histar’ichn’i Ahliad, , (),
–.
. For example, Michal Römer, Litwa, L’viv: Polskie towarzystwo nakladowe, . For
other such works, Bardach, “Polacy Litewscy,” in Jerzy Kloczowski, et al., eds., Belarus,
Lithuania, Poland, Ukraine, Lublin: IESW, , –.
. Figures from the Russia census.
. Eidintas and Z
ˇ
alys, Lithuania in European Politics, ; Egidijus Motieka, “Pocza˛tki nowo-
z˙ ytnego pan´stwa litewskiego,” in Krzysztof Jasiewicz, eds., Europa nie prowincjonalna,
Warsaw: Rytm, , –; Rimantas Miknys, “Wilno i Wilen´szczyzna w koncepc-
jach Michala Römera i krajowców,” ibid., ; Vytautas Berenis, “Problem dziedzictwa
kulturowego Wielkiego Ksie˛stwa Litewskiego w ideologii litewskiego ruchu narodo-
wego,” ibid., –.
. There were attempts to use the Polish language as a means to re-Lithuanize the reading
public. Tadeusz Bujnicki, “Polskoje˛zyczne pisarstwo Litwinów w Wilnie,” in Greta Le-
manaite
˙
and Pawel Bukowiec, eds., Litwa, Cracow: WUJ, , –.
. The count, cited above, found . percent Polish and . percent Jewish. Ac-
cording to the Russian census, the city was . percent Jewish and . percent
Polish. On commerce, Nancy and Stuart Schoenburg, Lithuanian Jewish Communities,
New York: Garland, , .
. For the comparison of the Besht and the Gaon, see Moshe Rosman, Founder of Ha-
sidism, Berkeley: University of California Press, , –. On the social origins of
Zionists in Poland, Ezra Mendelsohn, Zionism in Poland, New Haven, Conn.: Yale Uni-
versity Press, . On assimiliationism and nationalism in Vienna, Marsha Rozenblit,
The Jews of Vienna –, Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, , –. See also Joshua
Levisohn, “The Early Vilna Haskalah,” Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, .
. Harry Tobias, The Jewish Bund in Russia, Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press,
, , –; Henri Minczeles, Vilna, Wilno, Vilnius, Paris: Éditions de la Décou-
verte, .
. Stefan Kawym, Ideologia stronnictw politycznych w Polsce wobec Mickiewicza –,
L’viv: Filomat, ; Józef Kozlowski, “My z niego wszyscy...” Warsaw: Czytelnik, .
. Assessment based on electoral data assembled in by Jeffrey Kopstein and Jason
Wittenberg for their project “Rethinking the Social Bases of Dictatorship and Democ-
racy in Interwar East Central Europe.”
.In Ksawery Pruszyn´ski linked Dmowski’s social origins to a new sort of Polish na-
tionalism. Niezadowoleni i entuzjas´ci, Warsaw: Pan´stwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, ,
–. A sober introduction is Andrzej Walicki, “The Troubling Legacy of Roman
Notes to Pages 54–59
307
Dmowski,” East European Politics and Societies, , (), –. Brian Porter treats
modern Polish nationalism as an abandonment of historical time: When Nationalism
Began to Hate, Oxford: Oxford University Press, . See also Patrice Dabrowski,
“Folk, Faith, and Fatherland,” Nationalities Papers, , (), –. Consult gen-
erally Piotr Wandycz, The Lands of Partitioned Poland, Seattle: University of Washington
Press, ; Stefan Kieniewicz, Historia Polska –, Warsaw: PWN, ; Antony
Polonsky, Politics in Independent Poland, Oxford: Clarendon Press, .
. Vejas Liulevicius, War Land on the Eastern Front, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, .
. Bich, “Ad idei adnaulennia Rech’i Paspalitay,” –; quotation from Vasil Zacharka,
in Kipel and Kipel, Byelorussian Statehood, .
. Ivan Lubachko, Belorussia under Soviet Rule, Lexington: University of Kentucky Press,
, –.
. Antanas Smetona, Die litauische Frage, Berlin: Das neue Litauen, , .
. Stanley Page, The Formation of the Baltic States, Cambridge: Mass.: Harvard University
Press, , –; Wiktor Sukiennicki, East Central Europe During World War I, vol. ,
Boulder, Colo.: East European Monographs, , –.
. Andrzej Garlicki, “Wilna z˙ a˛daja˛ wszyscy,” in Robert Traba, ed., Tematy polsko-litewskie,
Olsztyn: Borussia, , .
. Piotr Lossowski, Po tej i tamtej stronie Niemna, Warsaw: Czytelnik, , . For a
sense of Lithuanian frustration, Juozas Gabrys, L’Etat Lithuanien et Mitteleuropa, ;
Lituanus, La vérité polonaise sur les Lithuaniens, Lausanne: Bureau d’Information de
Lithuanie, .
. Piotr Eberhardt, “Wizje i projekty Polskiej Granicy Wschodniej w latach –,”
Przegla˛d Wschodni, , (), –.
. Piotr Wandycz, Soviet-Polish Relations, –, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univer-
sity Press, , .
. Alfred Erich Senn, The Great Powers, Lithuania, and the Vilna Question, Leiden: Brill,
, .
. Norman Davies, White Eagle, Red Star, London: Macdonald and Co., ; Lucjan
Z
˙
eligowski, Wojna w roku , Warsaw: Polska zjednoczona, .
. Wandycz, Soviet-Polish Relations, ; Eidintas and Z
ˇ
alys, Lithuania in European Poli-
tics, , ; Andrzej Ajnenkial, “Od aktu ’ego listopadu do traktatu ryskiego,” in
Mieczyslaw Wojciechowski, ed., Traktat Ryski roku po latach, To r u n´: Wydawnictwo
Uniwersytetu Mikolaja Kopernika, , . This is the chain of events that followed in
: Polish defeat, Soviet cession of Vilnius to Lithuania, then Soviet occupation of
Lithuania itself.
. Lucjan Z
˙
eligowski, Zapomniane prawdy, London: Mildner and Sons, , –; Pil-
sudski quotation from Bohdan Skaradzin´ski, “Fenomen litewsko-bialoruskich formacji
Wojska Polskiego,” in Jasiewicz, Europa nie prowincjonalna, . See also Andrzej Nowak,
Polska i trzy Rosje, Cracow: Arcana, , –.
. Jan Da˛bski, Pokój ryski, Warsaw: Kulerskiego, , ; Witold Wojdylo, “Traktat w Ry-
dze w koncepcjach politycznych obozu narodowego,” in Wojciechowski, Traktat Ryski
, –. Grabski’s secondary motivations are treated in Krzysztof Kawalec, “Naro-
Notes to Pages 59–64
308
dowa Demokracja wobec traktatu ryskiego,” ibid., –. On Wasilewski see Barbara
Stoczewska, Litwa, Bia¬orus´, Ukraina w mys´li politycznej Leona Wasilewskiego, Cracow:
Ksie˛garnia Naukowa, . On Pilsudski and Wasilewski, see Wasilewski, Józef Pi¬sud-
ski: Jakim go zna¬em, Warsaw: Rój, .
. “Belorussia” signifies the Russian concept of the area as part of a Great Russian nation;
“Belarus” signifies the patriotic view of the country as the inheritor of the Grand Duchy
of Lithuania and Rus’.
. I have in mind M.V. Dounar-Zapolski, Historyia Belarusi, Minsk: Belaruskaia entsyklo-
pedia, . The manuscript was complete in . On Soviet exploitation of peasant
and national questions in Poland, see George Jackson, Comintern and Peasant in East
Europe, –, New York: Columbia University Press, , , , and passim.
. It was published in communist Poland: Adam Mickiewicz, Pan Tadeusz, trans. Broni-
slaw Taraszkiewicz, Olsztyn: Pojezierze, .
. A tradition in Belarusian historiography asks what would have happened had Riga
brought all of the “ethnically Belarusian lands” into Soviet Belorussia; another that asks
what might have happened had a Belarusian independent state somehow been created.
These were not in fact possibilities. This study will pose a more limited counterfactual,
having to do with propositions made and refused in the course of the pertractations. See
Uladzimir Lad’iseu and Petr Br’ihadzin, “Rada BNR paslia R’izhkaha dahavora r.,”
Belaruski histarychny chasopis, (), –.
. Michal Römer in Kaunas to Józef Pilsudski in Warsaw, May , in Anna and An-
drzej Rosner, eds., Pasmo czynnos´ci cia˛giem lat ida˛ce, Warsaw: Kra˛g, , –; on
the pogrom, Ezra Mendelsohn, The Jews of East Central Europe, Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, , ; on –, Lossowski, Stosunki polsko-litewskie; on the
s, Alfred Senn, The Emergence of Modern Lithuania, Westport, Conn.: Greenwood
Press, .
. There was a small memorial to Mickiewicz inside the Kos´ciól Akademicki in Wilno.
. S¬owo (Wilno), November , .
. Piotr Mys´lakowski, “Losy wilen´skich pomników Mickiewicza,” Biuletyn Stowarzyszenia
Wspólnota Polska, October .
CHAPTER 4. THE SECOND WORLD WAR AND THE VILNIUS QUESTION (1939–1945)
. On Wilno in this period: Ezra Mendelsohn, The Jews of East Central Europe, Blooming-
ton: Indiana University Press, , –; Jerzy Tomaszewski, ed., Najnowsze dzieje
Z
˙
ydów w Polsce, Warsaw: PWN, , –. See also Czeslaw Milosz, Rodzinna Eu-
ropa, Paris: Instytut Literacki, , –.
. The Polish census of the city in found that of , residents . percent were
Polish, . percent Jewish, . percent Belarusian, and . percent Lithuanian. Lithua-
nian demographers conceded that there were few Lithuanians in the city. Leonas Sabal-
iunas accepted a figure of . percent for the city and surrounding lands absorbed by
Lithuania in . Piotr Eberhardt “Przemiany narodowos´ciowe na Litwie,” Przegla˛d
Wschodni, , (), –.
. On Belarusian culture, Nicholas Vakar, Belorussia, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univer-
Notes to Pages 64 –78
309
sity Press, , –; Aleksander Wabiszczewicz, “Sytuacja szkolnictwa bialoruskiego
na Bialorusi zachodniej,” in Malgorzata Giz˙ ejewska and Tomasz Strzembosz, eds.,
Spo¬eczen´stwa bia¬oruskie, litewskie i polskie na ziemiach pó¬nocno-wschodnich II Rzeczy-
pospolitej, Warsaw: ISP PAN, , , ; Aleksiej Litwin, “Problem Bialorusi w ofic-
jalnej polityce polskiej,” ibid., –.
.Milosz, Rodzinna Europa, .
. Algis Kasperovicˇius, “Relituanizacja i powrót do macierzy,” in Robert Traba, ed., Tematy
polsko-litewskie, Olsztyn: Borussia, , ; Nerijus Udrenas, “History Textbooks and
the Making of the Nation State,” Masters thesis, Brandeis University, , .
. Tomas Venclova, “Native Realm Revisited,” cited after the manuscript, , published in
Polish in Zeszyty Literackie, ().
. Cited after Iver Neumann, “Poland as a Regional Great Power,” in Iver Neumann, ed.,
Regional Great Powers and International Politics, New York: St. Martin’s, , –.
See M. Anysas, Der litauische-polnische Streit um das Wilnagebiet, Wurzburg: K. Triltsch,
, –, ; Augustin Voldemaras, La Lithuanie et ses problèmes, Paris: Mercure Uni-
versel, , –.
. Alfonsas Eidintas and Vytautas Z
ˇ
alys, Lithuania in European Politics, New York: St. Mar-
tin’s, , –.
. Ibid., .
. David Crowe, The Baltic States and the Great Powers, Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press,
, .
. Eidintas and Z
ˇ
alys, Lithuania in European Politics, –.
. On the region: Marek Wierzbicki, Polacy i Bia¬orusini w zaborze sowieckim, Warsaw:
Volumen, , –; on the city: Iwanow, “Sprawa przynalez˙ nos´ci Wilna i problemy
narodowos´ciowe na Bialorusi,” in Giz˙ ejewska and Strzembosz, Spo¬eczen´stwa, –.
. Polski S¬ównik Biograficzny, vol. , Wroclaw: Ossolineum, , , ; Anton Lutske-
vich, Uspaminy ab pratsy pershykh belaruskikh palitychnykh arhanizatsyi, Minsk: Be-
laruskaia savetskaia entsyklapedyia, ; Arnold McMillin, Die Literatur der Weiss-
russen, Giessen: Wilhelm Schmitz, , .
. Regina Z
ˇ
epkajte, “Okupacja Wilna przez Armie˛ Czerwona˛,” in Giz˙ ejewska and Strzem-
bosz, Spo¬eczen´stwa, .
. Crowe, The Baltic States, –, Alan Bullock, Hitler and Stalin, New York: Knopf,
, ; Z
ˇ
epkajte, “Okupacja Wilna przez Armie˛ Czerwona˛,” ; Algis Kasperovicˇius,
“Stosunek wladz i spoleczen´stwa Litwy do Polaków ne Wilen´szczyz´nie,” in Giz˙ ejewska
and Strzembosz, Spo¬eczen´stwa, ; Krzysztof Tarka, “Spór o Wilno,” Zeszyty Histo-
ryczne, (), ; Sabaliunas, Lithuania in Crisis, –. During the Second World
War, the administrative center of Lithuania remained Kaunas, although according to the
constitution the capital was Vilnius. It was in Kaunas that Japanese vice consul Chiune
Sugihara issued ten thousand visas to Jews and saved five thousand lives. Hillel Levine,
In Search of Sugihara, New York: Free Press, .
. Leonas Sabaliunas, Lithuania in Crisis, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, ,
; Kasperovicˇius, “Relituanizacja i powrót do macierzy,” .
. Entry for July , his diary (Dziennik) in the manuscripts department (Rankrasˇcˇiu
Skyrius) of the Vilnius University Library, F–. Herector VUBR.
Notes to Pages 78–82
310
. The ostensible legal basis for this claim was the agreement with Bolshevik Russia of
July .
. S. Kairys, “Isˇ Vilniaus sugrizus?” Mintis, , , , cited after Kasperavicˇius, “Relitu-
anizacja,” .
. Sabaliunas, Lithuania in Crisis, . See also Crowe, The Baltic States, .
. Diary entries for February and March , VUBR F–. See also Longin
Tomaszewski, “Spoleczen´stwo Wilen´szczyzny wobec wladzy Litewskiej i sowieckiej,” in
Giz˙ ejewska and Strzembosz, Spo¬eczen´stwa, ; Eberhardt, Przemiany narodowos´ciowe
na Litwie, , .
. Kasperovicˇius, “Stosunek wladz i spoleczen´stwa Litwy do Polaków na Wilen´szczyz´nie,”
; Z
ˇ
epkajte, “Okupacja Wilna przez Armie˛ Czerwona˛,” –.
. Eberhardt, Przemiany narodowos´ciowe na Litwie, –.
. This book will not address the issue of the comparability of the Nazi and Soviet regimes.
In the s and s comparability was part of a West German debate, where it was re-
lated to the legacies of the Third Reich in contemporary West German society. A guide
to the Historikerstreit is Charles Maier, The Unmasterable Past, Cambridge, Mass.: Har-
vard University Press, ; see also Hans-Ulrich Wehler, Entsorgung der deutschen Ver-
gangenheit? Munich: Beck, . A useful collection in English is Peter Baldwin, ed., Re-
working the Past, Boston: Beacon Press, . In the s, the debate over comparability
became French, as previous loyalties to communism were questioned after the collapse
of the Soviet Union. See especially François Furet, Le passé d’une illusion, Paris: Cal-
mann-Levy, ; see also my review “Coming to Terms with the Charm and Power of
Soviet Communism,” Contemporary European History, , (), –. Stéphane
Courtois, ed., Le livre noir du communisme, Paris: Robert Laffont, , was an interna-
tional effort whose case for the murderousness of communism made the most waves in
France and Italy. French and German debates met in Le Débat, ().
. Under cover of German rule, extreme Lithuanian nationalists called for the Germans to
cleanse Vilnius of Poles, and were disappointed to learn that the Germans had other
plans. Kasperavicˇius, “Relituanizacja,” –.
. Statistical Report for March (/), F. R, A, B. ; “Lagebericht. Wilna, IV A
(Gestapo),” F. R, A, B. ; “An den Herrn Höheren SS-und Polizeiführer Ost-
land und Russland Nord in Riga. Verhalten litauischer Sonderkampfverbände,” May
; “Lagebericht. Bandentätigkeit,” April , F. R, A, B. , L. ; Report of
SS Commander Titel to Jeckeln in Riga, May , F. R, A, B. ; all in the
Lithuanian Central State Archives, Vilnius.
. Dina Porat, “The Holocaust in Lithuania,” in David Cesarini, ed., The Final Solution,
Routledge: New York, , .
. Yitzhak Arad, “The ‘Final Solution’ in Lithuania,” Yad Vashem Studies, (), ;
Yitzhak Arad, Ghetto in Flames, Jerusalem: Hava, , –.
. Konrad Kweit, “Rehearsing for Murder,” Holocaust and Genocide Studies, , (), –
). On the role of Lithuanian Jews during the Soviet occupation, Dov Levin, Baltic Jews
under the Soviets, Jerusalem: Hebrew University , . The author was a parliamentary
deputy during the Soviet interregnum.
. Arad, Ghetto in Flames, –; Marc Dvorjetski Le Ghetto de Vil’na, Geneva: Union
Notes to Pages 82–86
311
O.S.E., ; diary of Icchak Rudaszewski, Lithuania, (), –; Michael Mac-
Queen, “The Context of Mass Destruction,” Holocaust and Genocide Studies, , ()
–. See also Knut Stang, Kollaboration und Massenmord, Frankfurt am Main: Peter
Lang, , –.
. The death toll is higher than this suggests, as perhaps fifteen thousand Jews from War-
saw and central Poland fled to Vilne between and . Most of them met their
death somewhere in Lithuania.
. Abraham Novershtern, “Yung Vilne,” in Yisrael Gutman, Ezra Mendelsohn, Jehuda
Reinharz, and Chone Shmeruk, eds., The Jews of Poland Between the Two World Wars,
Hanover, Mass.: Brandeis University Press, , .
. Tarka, “Spór o Wilno,” .
. Kasperavicˇius, “Relituanizacja,” .
. Sovetskii faktor, .
. Teczka specjalna J.W. Stalina, .
. This subject is treated at length in chapter .
. Diary entry for November , VUBR, f‒.
. “Who will honor the city without a name?” asks the first line of Czeslaw Milosz’s “Mi-
asto bez imienia,” published in . On the predicament of Lithuanian Poles, see the
recollections in Jerzy Surwillo, Rachunki nie zamknie˛te, Vilnius: Magazyn Wilen´ski,
, for example at .
CHAPTER 5. EPILOGUE: SOVIET LITHUANIAN VILNIUS (1945–1991)
.Wlodzimierz Borodziej, Stanislaw Ciesielski, Jerzy Kochanowski, “Wste˛p,” in Prze-
siedlenie ludnos´ci polskiej –; Valentinas Brandisˇauskas, “Migracje i przemiany de-
mograficzne na Litwie,” in Krzysztof Jasiewicz, ed., Europa nie prowincjonalna, Warsaw:
Rytm, , .
. On Poles in Vilnius, Przesiedlenie ludnos´ci polskiej, ; on Polish authorities awaiting
Polish peasants, ff; on German documents, ; on Kaunas Lithuania, –.
. Piotr Eberhardt, Przemiany narodowos´ciowe na Litwie, Warsaw: Przegla˛d Wschodni,
, ; Piotr Eberhardt, Polska ludnos´c´ kresowa, Warsaw: PWN, , –. Cau-
tionary tales about census data are provided by Benedict Anderson, The Spectre of Com-
parison, London: Verso, , –.
. An official quasi-memoir treats this period as a struggle to save the “Lithuanian nation.”
M. Bordonaite, Tovaryshch Matas, Vilnius: Mintis, , and passim.
. Barbara Christophe, Staat versus Identität, Cologne: Wissenschaft und Politik, , .
. A. Bendzhius et al., Istoriia Vil’niusskogo universiteta, Vilnius: Mokslas, , , ;
Marceli Kosman, Uniwersytet Wilen´ski –, Wroclaw: Ossolineum, , . The
figure for Jews fell from percent in – to . percent in – to . percent in
–. The first drop is a result of the fact that over percent of Lithuania’s Jews had
been murdered in the Holocaust. The second most likely reflects a preference of Soviet
Jews to study in Russian-language universities.
. N.A. Aitov, V.G. Mordkovich, and M.Kh. Titma, Sovetskii gorod, Moscow: Mysl: ,
Notes to Pages 86–94
312
–; Romuald Misiunas and Rein Taagepera, The Baltic States, London: Hurst,
, , .
. A.J.P. Taylor, The Habsburg Monarchy, –, London: Hamilton, .
. Vytautas Vaitieku¯nas, “Sovietized Education in Occupied Lithuania,” in V. Stanley
Vardys, ed. Lithuania under the Soviets, New York: Praeger, , –, .
. V. Stanley Vardys, “Modernization and Baltic Nationalism,” Problems of Communism,
September–October , .
. Marek S
´
liwin´ski and Valerijus C
ˇ
ekmonas, “S
´
wiadomos´c´ narodowa mieszkan´ców Litwy
i Bialorusi,” Przegla˛d Wschodni, , (), ; Vesna Popovska, National Minorities
and Citizenship Rights in Lithuania, Houndmills: Palgrave, , –.
. Eberhardt, Przemiany narodowos´ciowe na Litwie, –; Nicolas Werth, “Apogée et
crise du goulag,” in Stéphane Courtois, ed., Le livre noir du communisme, Paris: Robert
Lafont, , .
. Zigmas Zinkevicˇius, The History of the Lithuanian Language, Vilnius: Mokslo ir encik-
lopediju leidykla, , –; Misiunas and Taagepera, The Baltic States, –.
. Vardys, “Modernization and Baltic Nationalism,” –; Eberhardt, Przemiany naro-
dowos´ciowe na Litwie, .
. Antanas Snechkus, Sovetskaia Litva na puti rastsveta, Vilnius, .
. Compare Leonidas Donskis, “Lithuania at the End of the Twentieth Century,” in Alek-
sandr Dobrynin and Bronius Kuzmickas, eds., Personal Freedom and National Resur-
gence, Washington, D.C. Paideia, , –. A radical version of this idea comes from
contemporary Hindi nationalists, who claim that medieval Lithuania was a “Hindu-
Buddhist” state. Douglas Spitz and William Urban, “A Hindu Nationalist View of Baltic
History,” Journal of Baltic Studies, (), .
. I have in mind Zinkevicˇius’s History of the Lithuanian Language.
. Virgil Krapauskas, “Marxism and Nationalism in Soviet Lithuanian Historiography,”
Journal of Baltic Studies, , (), ; Tomas Venclova, “Litwo, ojczyzno nasza,” Lith-
uania, – (), ; Jacek Borkowicz, “Polska—Litwa,” Polska w Europie, (),
–; Alicja Nagórska, “Je˛zyki—narody—kultury,” Lithuania, (), ; Stephen
Burant and Voytek Zubek, “Eastern Europe’s Old Memories and New Realities,” East
European Politics and Societies, , (), .
. Greta Lemanaite˙ , “Stereotyp Polaka w oczach Litwina,” in Teresa Walas, ed., Narody i
stereotypy, Cracow: Mie˛dzynarodowe Centrum Kultury, , –. See also Marek
´
Sliwi´nski, “Conscience nationale et la perception géopolitique des habitants de la
Lithuanie,” in Pierre Allan and Jan S
ˇ
kaloud, eds., The Making of Democracy, Prague:
Economics University Press, , –; Kultura, – (), –. These be-
liefs did not positively correlate with contact with Poles: Lithuanians who lived among
Poles expressed the least antipathy, while Lithuanians in places where there were few
or no Poles expressed the most. S
´
liwin´ski and C
ˇ
ekmonas, “S
´
wiadomos´c´ narodowa
mieszkan´ców Litwy i Bialorusi,” –. Their survey was taken in the early s.
. The number: Alfred Erich Senn, Gorbachev’s Failure in Lithuania, New York: St. Mar-
tin’s, , . For documents concerning the protests, Izidors Vizulis, The Molotov-
Ribbentrop Pact of , New York: Praeger, . On the debates of the late s,
Notes to Pages 94–98
313