Snyder T. The Reconstruction of Nations Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569-1999. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2004. 384 p
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.II/, AWKW; : Propam’iatna Knyha, .
. Estimates based upon figures cited above. See also the count prepared by the non-
governmental organization Karta in Warsaw, presented in Polska-Ukraina: Trudne pyta-
nia, vol. , Warsaw: Karta, , , and that of Grzegorz Motyka, “Co ma Wisla do
Wolynia,” Gazeta Wyborcza, March .
. Lotnik, Nine Lives, London: Serif, , . A structurally similar memoir makes clear
how such escapes were all but impossible for Jews. Michael Skakun, On Burning Ground,
New York: St. Martin’s, . Although Joseph Skakun, a Jew, imitates a Polish Tatar, es-
capes to Germany as a laborer, and joins the Waffen-SS as a Lithuanian, his imperson-
ations reveal the enormous problems Jews faced. Being Jewish was a death sentence as
was nothing else, over vast territories and for years on end. Jews usually looked different,
spoke with characteristic accents, knew little of the practice of Christianity, knew little
about work on the farm or life in the wilderness, often did not own inconspicuous cloth-
ing, and rarely had experience with weapons. Jewish men were circumcised.
. Agnieszka Cies´lowska, Prasa okupanowego Lwowa, Warsaw: Neriton, , –.
. These incidents from Gregorz Motyka, Tak by¬o w Bieszczadach, Warsaw: Volumen,
, , respectively.
. This comes up repeatedly in recollections of Ukrainians. See for example II//p,
AWKW.
. As in the case of southern whites and southern blacks who migrated to the industrial
north of the United States, obvious cultural similarities are overwhelmed by the felt need
to deny them, and undercut by the attractions of other identifications. Compare Wlodz-
imierz Odojewski, Oksana, Warsaw: Twój Styl, , and William Faulkner, The Sound
and the Fury, New York: Jonathan Cape, .
. The anecdote from Grzegorz Motyka and Rafal Wnuk, Pany i rezuny, Warsaw: Volu-
men, , . Christmas Eve invitations can be reciprocated because Western Rite and
Eastern Rite Christmas fall on different days: December and January. On the im-
portance of Christmas Eve dinner to “Polish” culture in the east, suggestive is Wlodz-
imierz Odojewski, Zasypie wszystko, zawieje... Paris: Instytut Literacki, . This
extraordinary novel about wartime Polish-Ukrainian relations cries out for translation.
For our analysis, it is most helpful in drawing attention to choices of individuals during
general conflict. Its chief weakness is its underestimation of Ukrainian nationalism as an
attractive force. It was banned in communist Poland.
. As is evident from Padraic Kenney’s social history Rebuilding Poland: Workers and Com-
munists, –, Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, .
. Andrzej Zie˛ba, “Ukrain´cy w oczach Polaków,” in Teresa Walas, ed., Narody i stereotypy,
Cracow: Mie˛dzynarodowe Centrum Kultury, , –. On state policy, Danuta
Sosnowska, “Stereotypy Ukrainy i Ukrain´ca w literaturze polskiej,” in ibid., –;
and Józef Lewandowski, “Polish Historical Writing on Polish-Ukrainian Relations Dur-
ing World War Two,” in Peter Potichnyj, ed., Poland and Ukraine,Toronto: CIUS, ,
–. See also John Basarab, “Postwar Writings in Poland on Polish-Ukrainian Rela-
tions,” ibid., ; Roman Szporluk, “The Role of the Press in Polish-Ukrainian Rela-
tions,” ibid., ; Babin´ski, Pogranicze polsko-ukrain´skie, ; Stefan Kozak, “Polsko-
Ukrain´skie dylematy i dialogi,” Polska w Europie, (), . For a different frame-
Notes to Pages 204–207
334
work, see Philipp Ther, Deutsche und polnische Vertriebene, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck &
Ruprecht, .
. Jan Ke˛sik, “Województwo wolyn´skie – w s´wietle liczb i faktów,” Przegla˛d
Wschodni, , (), –.
. Jan Popiel, “Rozmowy przeprowadzone w Dobrej w czerwcu-lipcu ,” ; Cor-
respondence from Jan Popiel, November ; : Propam’iatna Knyha, –;
Dzieje Konfliktów, Vol. 3, –; Motyka, Tak by¬o w Bieszczadach, . See also
Babin´ski, Pogranicze polsko-ukrain´skie, ; Krzysztof S
´
lusarek, Drobna szlachta w Ga-
licji, Cracow: Ksie˛garnia Akademicka, , .
. Respectively: S
´
ladami ludobojstwa, ; and II//, AWKW.
.II/j, AWKW; S
´
ladami ludobojstwa, –.
. See for example II/; II//kw; II/, AWKW. A number of Poles also mention be-
ing saved by Ukrainians, as is noted in chapter .
. Consult Anna Stron´ska, Dopóki milczy Ukraina, Warsaw: Trio, .
. Taras Kuzio, Ukraine, London: Routledge, , . More generally, consult P.N. Bar-
ford, The Early Slavs, Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, , ff.
. On Polish and Soviet treatments of Ukrainian history, Stephen Velychenko, Shaping
Identity in Eastern Europe and Russia, New York: St. Martin’s, ; Andrew Wilson, The
Ukrainians, New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, .
. Personal experience in L’viv, July and June . There is a Polish song about Vol-
hynia with similar words, recorded in the memoirs of Poles who fled in .
. The Eskimo remark: Babin´ski, Pogranicze polsko-ukrain´skie, . The tale of St. Teresa’s/
St. John the Baptist is presented in Chris Hann, “Postsocialist Nationalism,” Slavic Re-
view, , (), –. The leader of the committee to “protect the Polish Church”
gives his views in Pogranicze (Przemys´l), – ().
. Przesiedlenie ludnos´ci polskiej, .
. Krystyna Kersten, “Forced Migration and the Transformation of Polish Society in the
Postwar Period,” in Philipp Ther and Ana Siljak, eds., Ethnic Cleansing in East Central
Europe, –, Boulder, Colo.: Rowman and Littlefield, , ‒.
. On ethnic purity and communist legitimation, Jan Gross, “A Tangled Web,” in István
Deák, Jan Gross, and Tony Judt, eds., The Politics of Retribution in Europe, Princeton:
Princeton University Press, , –; Lukasz Hoirszowicz, “The Jewish Issue in
Post-War Communist Politics,” in Abramsky et al., The Jews in Poland, –; Feliks
Tych, D¬ugi cien´Zag¬ady, Warsaw: Z
˙
ydowski Instytut Historyczny, , ; Eugeniusz
Mironowicz, Bia¬orusini w Polsce, –, Warsaw: PWN, , –; Andrzej
Paczkowski, Od sfa¬szowanego zwycie˛stwa do prawdziwej kle˛ski, Cracow: Wydawnictwo
Literackie, , .
. The survey was entitled “Przemiany Polaków,” and the thirty replies appeared in the
November, November, November, November, December, and December
numbers of Polityka. Tadeusz Kotarbin´ski was the only one to mention the benefits
of variety. Józef Chalabin´ski was the only one to mention the Jews explicitly, in the con-
struction “not to mention the Jews.” Several respondents, it should be added, argued
that the very notion of a Polish society or a Polish type only made sense in the postwar
period, which is consistent with my argument here.
Notes to Pages 207–213
335
.Miroslaw Czech, Ukrain´cy w Polsce, Warsaw: Zwia˛zek Ukrain´ców w Polsce, ,
, ; Stefan Zabrowarny, “Polityka narodowos´ciowa polskich wladz komunisty-
cznych w kwestii ukrain´skiej,” in Jacek Pietras´ and Andrzej Czarnocki, eds., Polityka
narodowos´ciowa pan´stw Europy S
´
rodkowowschodniej, Lublin: IEWS, , ; Boris
Bej, “Ukrain´cy w Polsce,” Kultura, (), –. See also Marcin Król, “Komen-
tarz,”Nowa Respublica, (), .
. Manfred Berger, Jaruzelski, Düsseldorf: EconVerlag, , –; Timothy Garton
Ash, The Polish Revolution: Solidarity, London: Penguin, , –. Jaruzelski’s ac-
count is Stan wojenny dlaczego, Warsaw: BGW, .
CHAPTER 11. PATRIOTIC OPPOSITIONS AND STATE INTERESTS (1945–1989)
. Observers were hardly sanguine about relations among Poland and its eastern neighbors
in . See Daniel Nelson, “Europe’s Unstable East,” Foreign Policy, , , –;
John Mearsheimer, “Back to the Future,” International Security, , (), –; An-
drew Michta, East Central Europe after the Warsaw Pact, Westport, Conn.: Greenwood
Press, , ; Józef Lewandowski, “Mie˛dzy Sanem a Zbruczem,” Kultura (),
–; Józef Darski, Ukraina, Warsaw: Sorograf, , ; Yaroslav Bilinsky, “Basic
Factors in the Foreign Policy of Ukraine,” in S. Frederick Starr, ed., The Legacy of History
in Russia and the New States of Eurasia, Armonk, N.Y.: M. E. Sharpe, , , .
. There was then a chair in Ukrainian history at Warsaw University, and an Institute of
Ukrainian Studies in Warsaw: small reminders of the Polish-Ukrainian alliance of .
This institute published the first Ukrainian translation of Pan Tadeusz, by Maksym
Ryl’s’kyi.
. A large share of the London emigration hailed from eastern territories lost to the Soviet
Union, so their revanchism was personal. Of course, Giedroyc’s native Minsk was freely
given to Bolshevik Russia by Polish nationalists negotiating at Riga in . This perhaps
influenced his attitude toward Polish nationalists campaigning for Lwów and Wilno af-
ter .
. Facts drawn from Jerzy Giedroyc, Autobiografia na cztery re˛ce, Warsaw: Czytelnik, ;
interview with Jerzy Giedroyc, Maisons-Laffitte, France, November . On his in-
fluence, Andrzej Friszke, Opozycja polityczna w PRL, London: Aneks, , , and the
treatments of Kultura cited below.
. In the s, concern with the Soviet Union yielded to a plan to create a Central Euro-
pean Federation. After the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia, however, Kultura be-
gan to concentrate on the geopolitics of Europe after the failure of communism and the
collapse of the Soviet Union. Janusz Korek, Paradoksy paryskiej Kultury, Stockholm:
Almqvist & Wiksell, , –; Marek Suszko, “Kultura and European Unification,
–,” Polish Review, , (), –.
. The paragraphs to follow deal with Juliusz Mieroszewski, “Polska ‘Ostpolitik,’” and
“Rosyjski ‘Kompleks Polski’ i ULB,” in Materia¬y do refleksji i zadumy, Paris; Instytut
Literacki, , –, –. See also his “ABC polityki Kultury,” in Zdzislaw
Kudelski, Spotkania z paryska˛ Kultura˛, Warsaw: Pomost , –; Krzysztof Kop-
czyn´ski, Przed przystankiem niepodleg¬os´ci, Warsaw: Wie˛z˙ , , ; and Rafal Habielski,
Notes to Pages 213–221
336
“Realizm, wizje, i sny romantyków,” in Juliusz Mieroszewski, Fina¬ klasycznej Europy,
Lublin: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Sklodowskiej, esp. . Compare Adam
Bromke, Idealism vs. Realism, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, .
. The historian Roman Szporluk drew attention to this same concatenation at about the
same time: see the , , and articles reprinted as the first three chapters of Rus-
sia, Ukraine, and the Breakup of the Soviet Union, Stanford, Calif: Hoover University
Press, .
. Timothy Snyder, “The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth since : National Narra-
tives in Relations among Belarus, Lithuania, Poland, and Ukraine,” Nationalism and
Ethnic Politics, , (), –.
. On the realists, Stanislaw Bielen´, “Kierunki polityki wschodniej III Rzeczypospolitej,”
in Patrza˛c na wschód, Warsaw: Centrum Badan´ Wschodnich, , . On the govern-
ment in exile, Radio Free Europe Report, September .
. On the period before Solidarity, Friszke, Opozycja; Andrzej Paczkowski, Pó¬ wieku
dziejów Polski, Warsaw: PWN, ; Grzegorz Ekiert, The State against Society, Prince-
ton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, . On Solidarity, Timothy Garton Ash, The
Polish Revolution, London: Penguin, ; Roman Laba, The Roots of Solidarity, Prince-
ton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, ; Jan Kubik, The Power of Symbols against the
Symbols of Power, University Park: University of Pennsylvania Press, ; Michael Bern-
hard, “Reinterpreting Solidarity,” Studies in Comparative Communism, , (), –
; David Mason, “Solidarity as a New Social Movement,” Political Science Quarterly,
, (), –.
. For the PPN program and KOR publications, Friszke, Opozycja, , –. On the
open letter, Jan Lózef Lipski, KOR, Berkeley: University of California Press, , .
See also Antoni Kamin´ski and Jerzy Kozakiewicz, Stosunki Polsko-Ukrain´skie, Warsaw:
ISP PAN, , ; Ilya Prizel, “The Influence of Ethnicity on Foreign Policy,” in Roman
Szporluk, ed., National Identity and Ethnicity in Russia and the New States of Eurasia, Ar-
monk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, , ; Polityka (Warsaw), March , .
. Jacek Kurón, Wiara i wina, London: Aneks, , –.
. On censored (legal) historiography, I.T. Lisevych, “Ukrains’ko-pols’ke kulturne spivro-
bitnytstvo v -kh rokakh,” Mizhnarodni zv’iazky Ukrainy, (), –; L.O. Za-
shkil’niak, “Ukraina i ukrains’ko-pols’ki vidnosyny u pisliavoiennii pols’kii istoriohra-
fii,” ibid., –. Key uncensored (illegal) texts were Kazimierz Podlaski [Bohdan
Skaradzin´ski], “Bialorusini—Litwini—Ukrain´cy: Nasi wrogowie czy bracia?” and Tadeusz
Olszan´ski, “Notatnik bieszczadzki.”
. On Ukrainian questions during the Solidarity period, Iurii Zaitsev, “Pol’s’ka opozytsiia
– rokiv pro zasady ukrains’ko-pols’koho porozuminnia,” in Iurii Slivka, ed., De-
portatsii ukraintsiv ta poliakiv, L’viv: NAN Ukrainy, , ; Taras Kuzio, “The Polish
Opposition and the Ukrainian Question,” Journal of Ukrainian Studies, , (), ;
Friszke, Opozycja, ; Miroslaw Czech, Ukrain´cy w Polsce, Warsaw: Zwia˛zek Ukrain´ców
w Polsce, , ; Garton Ash, Polish Revolution, .
. See the recollections of Bohdan Osadczuk, Iaroslav Hrytsak, Myroslav Popovych, Ivan
Dziuba, Mykola Zhulyns’kyi, Miroslaw Czech, and Roman Szporluk in Nashe Slovo
(Warsaw), October .
Notes to Pages 221–228
337
. On the KPN see below. The declaration of Wolnos´c´ i Pokój in Stosunki Polsko-
Ukrain´skie –, Warsaw: Perturbancii, , –. Publications which took up
these questions included Karta, Znak, Spotkania, Obóz, Mie˛dzymorze, and Nowa Koal-
icja. An important document was [Zdzislaw Najder et al.], “Polska-Ukraina,” internal
position paper, Polskie Porozumienie Niepodleglos´ciowe, November . See generally
Krzysztof Labe˛dz´, Spory wokó¬ zagadnien´ programowych w publikacjach opozycji polity-
cznej w Polsce, Cracow: Ksie˛garnia Akademicka, , –; Jerzy Pomianowski,
Ruski miesia˛c z hakiem, Wroclaw: Wydawnictwo Dolnos´la˛skie, , ; Józef Darski,
“Kronika bialoruska,” Kultura, (), ; Jan Widacki, “Stosunki polsko-litewskie,
Kultura, (), –.
. Antoni Dudek and Maciej Gawlikowski, Leszek Moczulski bez wahania, Cracow:
Krakowski Instytut Wydawniczy, , ; Z
˙
ycie Przemyskie, April , , ; Spra-
wozdanie Stenograficzne z posiedzienia Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej, July , – (here-
after session () in parentheses); ibid. (), October , .
. Stefan Kozak, “Polsko-Ukrain´skie dylematy i dialogi,” Polska w Europe, (January
), .
. Milada Vachudová and Timothy Snyder, “Are Transitions Transitory?” East European
Politics and Societies, , (), –.
. This reversed an older East and Central European pattern. Most outstanding interwar
fascists and nationalists were former socialists. Most outstanding postcommunist fas-
cists and nationalists were former communists.
. Interview with Aleksander Kwas´niewski, Warsaw, Poland, May ; interview with
Jerzy Giedroyc, Maisons-Laffitte, France, November ; also Gazeta Wyborcza, –
January , .
. Anna Grzymala-Busse, “The Regeneration of Communist Parties in East Central Eu-
rope after ,” Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, .
CHAPTER 12. THE NORMATIVE NATION-STATE (1989–1991)
. For the legal stance of the Federal Republic of Germany, Documentation Relating to the
Federal Government’s Policy of Détente, Bonn: Press Office of the FRG, , , . For
the views of expellee leaders, Herbert Hupka, Unruhiges Gewissen, Vienna: Langen
Müller, , ff.; Herbert Czaja, Unterwegs zum kleinsten Deutschland? Frankfurt am
Main: Josef Knecht, , ff. Polish public opinion polls are cited below.
. Quotation from Gazeta Wyborcza, November , . See also Rocznik Polskiej Poli-
tyki Zagranicznej , . Consult Jacques Lévesque, The Enigma of , Berkeley: Uni-
versity of California Press, , –.
. On the Kohl visit to Warsaw, Horst Telchik, Tage, Berlin: Siedler, , –; Hel-
mut Kohl, Ich wollte Deutschlands Einheit, Berlin: Ullstein, , –; Bronislaw
Geremek, Rok , Warsaw: Plejada, , ; Philip Zelikow and Condoleezza Rice,
Germany Unified and Europe Transformed, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
, . Waigel’s remarks cited after Krzysztof Skubiszewski, Polityka zagraniczna i
odzyskanie niepodleg¬os´ci, Warsaw: Interpress, , n. .
. Timothy Garton Ash, In Europe’s Name, New York: Random House, , , –;
Notes to Pages 228–236
338
Zelikow and Rice, Germany Unified, –, –; Telchik, Tage, , , –
; Gazeta Wyborcza, February , ; February , ; February , ;
March , ; March , ; Krzysztof Skubiszewski, “Poland and the North At-
lantic Alliance –,” in Jörn Ipsen, ed., Recht—Staat—Gemeinwohl, Cologne:
Heymann, ; Skubiszewski, Polityka zagraniczna, –; Sprawozdanie Stenogra-
ficzne, (), April , –.
.Wlodzimierz Derczyn´ski and Robert Draczyk, Stosunek Polaków do innych narodowos´ci,
Warsaw: CBOS, August , .
. On the initiation of negotiations, Antoni Dudek, Pierwsze lata III Rzeczypospolitej –
, Cracow: Geo, , ; Grzegorz Kostrzewa-Zorbas, “The Russian Troop With-
drawal from Poland,” in Allan Goodman, ed., The Diplomatic Record, –, Boul-
der, Colo.: Westview Press, , –. On Vilnius aflame, Grzegorz Kostrzewa-Zor-
bas, “Imperium kontratukuje,” in Jacek Kurski and Piotr Semka, interviewers, Lewy
czerwcowy, Warsaw: Editions Spotkania, , –.
. On Polish fears of Germany, “Security for Europe Project Final Report,” Providence,
R.I.: CFPD, , . For a May , survey, Z
˙
ycie Warszawy, August , . Hupka’s
query in Skubiszewski, Polityka zagraniczna, . On German diplomats, ibid., .
. Communication from Krzysztof Skubiszewski, December , –. This is clear in
Skubiszewski, Polityka zagraniczna, –. See also Ilya Prizel, “Warsaw’s Ostpolitik,”
in Ilya Prizel and Andrew Michta, eds., Polish Foreign Policy Reconsidered, New York: St.
Martin’s, , –.
. Respectively: Sprawozdanie Stenograficzne (), May , ; Skubiszewski, Polityka
zagraniczna, .
.In Skubiszewski had criticized Polish participation in the invasion of Czechoslovakia
and the anti-Semitic policy of the Polish regime; in he had joined Solidarity. Never-
theless, he participated in a Consultative Council to General Wojciech Jaruzelski from
to . Jaruzelski stayed on as president of Poland until , and so Skubiszewski’s
career made him an acceptable choice for both sides as foreign minister in .
. On Skubiszewski, Polityka (Warsaw), October . On logistics, Gazeta Wyborcza,
– June ; communication from Krzysztof Skubiszewski, December , .
. The exception is the Hungarian engagement of the Ukrainian SSR, a result of Hungary’s
concerns about its minority there. Skubiszewski quotation: Polityka zagraniczna, .
Skubiszewski’s characterization of the policy: Sprawozdanie Stenograficzne (), Feb-
ruary , ; Polityka zagraniczna, ; and the sources cited in the next note. The
two-track memorandum: Grzegorz Kostrzewa-Zorbas, “Tezy do polskiej polityki wschod-
niej u progu lat dziewie˛dziesia˛tych,” March . On its relation to policy: Commu-
nication from Grzegorz Kostrzewa-Zorbas, February . See also Geremek, Rok
, ; Gazeta Wyborcza, – January , –; Rzeczpospolita, January , .
. Sprawozdanie Stenograficzne (), April , ; and , June , .
. Grzegorz Kostrzewa-Zorbas, “Stosunki polsko-litewskie,” submitted to the Polish Sen-
ate’s Foreign Affairs Committee and to the Obywatelski Klub Parlamentarny, Warsaw,
October .
. Skubiszewski, Polityka zagraniczna, , . For criticism, see Adam Chajewski, “Polityka
polska wobec Litwy w latach –,” Arcana, , , (), .
Notes to Pages 236–240
339
. Timothy Snyder, “The Poles,” in Charles King and Neil Melvin, eds., Nations Abroad,
Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, , –.
. On contacts with Sa˛ju¯dis, Chajewski, “Polityka polska wobec Litwy,” ; Jan Widacki,
“Stosunki polsko-litewskie,” Kultura, (), ; “Materialy okra˛glego stolu litewsko-
polskiego,” Lithuania, – (–), ; Jerzy Marek Nowakowski, “Polska—Litwa,
Polska w Europie, (), .
. “Rukh” and “Sa˛ju¯dis” mean “movement” in Ukrainian and Lithuanian, which makes
translation senseless and precision hard.
. Myroslav Shkandrij, “Literary Politics and Literary Debates in Ukraine –,” in
Bohdan Krawchenko, ed., Ukraine after Shelest, Edmonton: CIUS, , –; Roman
Solchanyk, “Politics and the National Question in the Post-Shelest Period,” ibid., –.
. Kultura, – (), –; Taras Kuzio, “The Polish Opposition and the Ukrai-
nian Question,” Journal of Ukrainian Studies, , (), ; Stephen Burant, “Poland’s
Eastern Policy, –,” Problems of Post-Communism, , (), –; “Infor-
macja o zaloz˙ eniach i dotychczasowej dzialalnos´ci Instytutu Polsko-Ukrain´skiego,”
.
. Michnik quotation from Miroslaw Czech, Ukrain´cy w Polsce, Warsaw: Zwia˛zek Ukrain´ców
w Polsce, , ; the reaction from Roman Solchanyk, Ukraine: From Chernobyl to
Sovereignty, New York: St. Martin’s Press, , ; Ivan Drach, Roman Szporluk, and
Mark Kramer discussed the Michnik speech with me.
. Interview with Jerzy Kozakiewicz, Warsaw, March ; Iurii Zaitsev, “Pol’s’ka opozyt-
siia – rokiv pro zasady ukrains’ko-pols’koho prozuminnia,” in Iurii Zaitsev, ed.,
Deportatsii ukraintsiv ta poliakiv, L’viv: NAN Ukrainy, , –; Antoni Kamin´ski
and Jerzy Kozakiewicz, Stosunki polsko-ukrain´skie, Warsaw: Instytut Spraw Publicznych,
, ; Czech, Ukrain´cy w Polsce, ; Gazeta Wyborcza, May , .
. Interview with Jacek Czaputowicz, Warsaw, September ; Stephen Burant, “Inter-
national Relations in a Regional Context: Poland and its Eastern Neighbors,” Europe-
Asia Studies, , (), ; Gazeta Wyborcza, October , .
. Interview with Jerzy Kozakiewicz, Warsaw, March ; Skubiszewski, Polityka za-
graniczna, –; Sprawozdanie Stenograficzne (), May , ; Jan de Weyden-
thal, “Polish-Ukrainian Rapprochement,” RFE/RL Research Report, February ,
; Czech, Ukrain´cy w Polse, ; Kamin´ski and Kozakiewicz, Stosunki polsko-ukrain´skie,
–; Nashe Slovo (Warsaw), December , –.
. Andrew Wilson, Ukrainian Nationalism in the s, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, .
. Alexander Motyl and Bohdan Kravchenko, “Ukraine,” in Ian Bremmer and Ray Taras,
eds., New States New Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, , –;
Roman Szporluk, “Reflections on Ukraine after ,” Harriman Review, , – (),
–; Wiktor Neboz˙ enko, “Ukrain´ska opinia publiczna o polityce zagranicznej,” Polska
w Europie, (), –.
. Poland also received assurances that the Russian Federation would not settle Germans in
the Baltic province of Kaliningrad, taken from Germany and kept by the Soviet Union
after the Second World War. Skubiszewski, Polityka zagraniczna, –.
. Kostrzewa-Zorbas, “Russian Troop Withdrawal,” –; Rocznik Polskiej Polityki Za-
Notes to Pages 241–246
340
granicznej , –; Rocznik Polskiej Polityki Zagranicznej , ; Dudek, Pierwsze
lata III Rzeczypospolitej, .
. Yitzhak Brudny, Reinventing Russia, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, ,
and passim.
. Wojciech Roszkowski, “Polska,” in Marek Beylin, ed., Europa s´rodkowo-wschodnia ,
Warsaw: ISP, , ; on the May treaties see Kostrzewa-Zorbas, “Russian Troop
Withdrawal,” .
. Kultura, (), –; Stephen Burant, “Belarus and the Belarusian Irredenta in
Lithuania,” Nationalities Papers, , (), ; Alfred Erich Senn, Gorbachev’s Failure
in Lithuania, New York: St. Martin’s, , , .
.On , Algimantas Prazauskas, “The Influence of Ethnicity on the Foreign Policy of
the Western Littoral States,” in Roman Szporluk, ed., National Identity and Ethnicity in
Russia and the New States of Eurasia, Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, , . On ,
Kultura, (), .
. On the visit: interview with Jacek Czaputowicz, September , Skubiszewski, Poli-
tyka zagraniczna, ; Tadeusz Gawin, Ojcowizna, Hrodna: Fundacja Pomocy Szkolom
Polskim, , ; Gazeta Wyborcza, October , ; October , ; Novem-
ber , ; Kultura, (), –; ibid., (), . On territory and minori-
ties: “Interview with Vintsuk Vyachorka,” Uncaptive Minds, fall , –; Kultura,
(), –; RFE/RL Research Report, , ( September ), –.
. Gazeta Wyborcza, September , ; Kultura, (), ; Moscow Interfax in En-
glish, October , in FBIS-SOV, October , ; Moscow Tass in English, Oc-
tober , ibid., October , ; Le Monde, – March , in FIBS-EEU,
April , –; Jan Zaprudnik, Belarus, Boulder, Colo.: Westview, , .
. Zdzislaw Winnicki, “Polacy na Bialorusi,” in Jacek Pietras´ and Andrzej Czarnocki, eds.,
Polityka narodowos´ciowa pan´stw Europy S
´
rodkowowschodniej, Lublin: IEWS, , .
. Juozis Lakis, “Ethnic Minorities in the Postcommunist Transformation of Lithuania,”
International Sociology, , (), –. In , , students studied in Polish
schools or studied Polish in non-Polish schools. By this number had fallen to ,.
Grzegorz Blaszczyk, “Polacy na Litwie,” Przegla˛d Wschodni, , (), .
. Eberhardt, “Przemiany narodowos´ciowe na Litwie,” .
. Thomas Szayna, “Ethnic Poles in Lithuania and Belarus,” Rand Report, August , .
. Jacek Kus´mierz, “Mie˛dzy ‘wschodem’ a ‘zachodem,’” Przegla˛d Wschodni, , (), –
; Lech Mróz, “Problemy etniczne w Litwie wschodniej,” ibid., ; Szayna, “Ethnic
Poles in Lithuania and Belarus,” vii.
. Senn, Lithuania Awakening, ; Vesna Popovski, National Minorities and Citizenship
Rights in Lithuania, Houndmills: Palgrove, , –; Piotr Lossowski, “The Polish
Minority in Lithuania,” Polish Quarterly of International Affairs, , – (), ; Kul-
tura, (), –; Chajewski, “Polityka polska wobec Litwy,” ; Gazeta Wybor-
cza, September , .
. Widacki, “Stosunki polsko-litewskie,” –; Gazeta Wyborcza, October , .
. As Ernest Renan put it, “to have forgotten, to commit historical errors, this is crucial to
the creation of a nation.” Qu’est-ce qu’une nation? Paris: Calmann-Levy, . But see
Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities, rev. ed., London: Verso, , –.
Notes to Pages 246–252
341
. Grzegorz Kostrzewa, “Stare i nowe,” Gazeta Wyborcza, September , .
. The letter in Gazeta Wyborcza, – September , . Vladivostok mockery ibid., –
September , . See also ibid., September , ; June , .
. “Aide Mémoire w sprawie potrzeb mniejszos´ci polskiej w Republice Litewskiej,” Polish
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, November . This campaign for territorial autonomy
received no attention in the West precisely because it lacked (in Rogers Brubaker’s terms)
a “nationalizing external homeland” which supported its claims. Nationalism Reframed,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, . For the voices of the autonomists: Nasza
Gazeta (Vilnius), October , ; October , ; November , , ; De-
cember , ; April , –; April , ; May , ; June , ; Oc-
tober , .
. Senn, Gorbachev’s Failure, ; see also the sources cited in note .
. Gazeta Wyborcza, May , ; January , ; Rzeczpospolita, – April , ;
Chajewski, “Polityka polska wobec Litwy,” .
. Sprawozdanie Stenograficzne (), January , .
. Timothy Snyder, “National Myths and International Relations: Poland and Lithuania,
–,” East European Politics and Societies, , (), –; Gazeta Wyborcza,
January , .
. RFE Daily Report, February .
. Gazeta Wyborcza, – January , ; January , ; January , .
. Ibid., January , ; January , ; January , ; Leszek Jesien´, personal
communication, April .
. Ibid., – January , ; January , .
. Compare F. Stephen Larrabee, East European Security after the Cold War, Santa Monica,
Calif: RAND, , –.
CHAPTER 13. EUROPEAN STANDARDS AND POLISH INTERESTS (1992–1993)
. The EU was called the EC (European Communities) until . To avoid confusion, I
will use “EU” throughout. Poland’s desire to join NATO was not made explicit before
, and was always more freely discussed by Prime Ministers Jan Olszewski and Hanna
Suchocka than by Skubiszewski. It was the subject of conversations with Western part-
ners as early as (if not before).
. Krzysztof Skubiszewski, Polityka zagraniczna i odzyskanie niepodleg¬osci, Warsaw: Inter-
press, , .
. Ibid., .
. For basic statements of policy: Sprawozdanie Stenograficzne (), May , –;
Skubiszewski, Polityka zagraniczna, , , –. See also the views of the Polish
ambassador from to in Jan Widacki, “Stosunki polsko-litewskie,” Kultura,
(), ; Z
ˇ
ilvinas Norkunas, “Steering the Middle Course,” Lithuania in the
World, , (), –; and the address of the next foreign minister, Andrzej Ole-
chowski: Sprawozdanie Stenograficzne (), May , .
. “Polska—Ukraina—Bialorus,” Polska w Europie, (), –.
. The latter explicitly referred to the Copenhagen statement on minority rights. Ver-
Notes to Pages 252–259
342
trag zwischen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und der Republik Polen über gute Nach-
barschaft und freundschaftliche Zusammenarbeit, June , article , available at
www.auswaertiges-amt.de.
. Polityka (Warsaw), February , . See also Skubiszewski, Polityka zagraniczna, ,
; Miroslaw Czech, Ukrain´cy w Polsce, Warsaw: Zwia˛zek Ukrain´ców w Polsce, ,
.
. Hans-Dietrich Genscher, Rebuilding a House Divided, New York: Broadway Books,
, ; Helmut Kohl, Ich wollte Deutschlands Einheit, Berlin: Ullstein, , –
. On the “European” character of the German-Polish treaty, Dieter Bingen, Die
Polenpolitik der Bonner Republik von Adenauer bis Kohl, Baden-Baden: Nomos, ,
–. Consult generally Timothy Garton Ash, In Europe’s Name, New York: Ran-
dom House, .
. Czech, Ukrain´cy w Polsce, ; Andrew Wilson, Ukrainian Nationalism in the s, Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, , . But see also Kultura, (), –.
Sources on Polish fears of their neighbors are cited below.
. Czech, Ukrain´cy w Polsce, –, for the Polish apology and the Ukrainian reply.
. Rocznik Polskiej Polityki Zagranicznej , .
. Remarks of Dmytro Pavlychko in Holos Ukrainy (Kyiv), February , ; interview
with Ivan Drach, Kyiv, May .
. Quotations from Burant, “International Relations in a Regional Context: Poland and its
Eastern Neighbors,” Europe-Asia Studies, , (), .
. “Shosta sesiia Verkhovnoi Rady Ukrainy, sklykannia,” Biuletyn , , –.
. Hanna Suchocka, Dmytro Pavlychko, Hennadii Udovenko cited after, respectively:
Wladyslaw Gill and Norbert Gill, Stusunki Polski z Ukraina˛, To r u n´: Marszalek, , ;
Kultura, (), –; Z
˙
ycie Przemyskie, March , , . See also Holos Ukrainy
(Kyiv), January , .
. See the resolution “Kontseptsiia Derzhavotvorennia v Ukraini,” from the Rukh congress of
December ; also Literaturna Ukraina, December ; Kultura (), –.
. Holos Ukrainy (Kyiv), May , –; Warsaw Radio Warszawa Network, May
, in FBIS-EEU, May , ; Izvestia, May , , in Current Digest of the Post-
Soviet Press, , (), –; Bohdan Osadczuk, “Od Belwederu do Kamien´ca
Podolskiego,” Kultura, – (), .
. See for example the collection of statements in A Russia That We...,Kyiv: UCIPR, .
. “To strengthen Regional Security in Central and Eastern Europe,” Ukrainian Embassy in
Warsaw, April ; [Dmytro Pavlychko], “Os´wiadczenie,” Kultura, (), –.
See also Ivan Drach, Polityka, Kyiv: Ukraina, , ; Larrabee, East European Security,
, –; Antoni Kamin´ski and Jerzy Kozakiewicz, Stosunki polsko-ukrain´skie Warsaw:
Instytat Spraw Publicznych, , –; Wilson, Ukrainian Nationalism, .
. Reactions to the pact: Stephen Burant, “Ukraine and East Central Europe,” in Lubomyr
Hajda, ed., Ukraine and the World, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, , .
Polish explanations of Ukrainian policy: Kultura, – (), ; Skubiszewski, Polit-
yka zagraniczna, . Equal distance: Jan de Weydenthal, “Economic Issues Dominate
Poland’s Eastern Policy,” RFE/RL Research Report, , ( March ), ; Warsaw TVP,
January , in FBIS-EEU, January , ; RFE Daily Report, February .
Notes to Pages 259–265
343