Snyder T. The Reconstruction of Nations Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569-1999. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2004. 384 p
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294
Abbreviations
AK Armia Krajowa
(Polish) Home Army
EU European Union
OUN Orhanizatsiia Ukrains’kykh Natsionalistiv
Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
SSR Soviet Socialist Republic
NKVD Narodnyi Komissariat Vnutrennikh Del
People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs
UNDO Ukrains’ke Natsional’ne Demokratychne Ob’iednannia
Ukrainian National-Democratic Alliance
UPA Ukrains’ka Povstans’ka Armiia
Ukrainian Insurgent Army
YIVO Yidisher Visnshaftlekher Institut
Institute for Jewish Research
Archives
295
AMPN Archiwum Muzeum Polskiego, Dzial Narodowos´ciowy
Archive of the Polish Museum, Nationalities Section
(London)
AWKW Archiwum Wschodnie, Os´rodek Karta, Wspomnienia
Eastern Archive, Karta, Memoirs (Warsaw)
BUWR Biblioteka Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego, Dzial Re˛kopisów
Warsaw University Library, Manuscripts Department
(Warsaw)
CAWR Centralne Archiwum Wojskowe
Central Military Archive (Rembertów, Poland)
GARF Gosudarstvennyi Arkhiv Rossiiskoi Federatsii
State Archive of the Russian Federation (Moscow)
LCVA Lietuvos Centrinis Valstybes Archyvas
Lithuanian Central State Archives (Vilnius)
SPPL Studium Polskiej Podziemnej
Archive of the Polish Underground (London)
VUBR Vilniaus Universiteto Biblioteka, Rankrasˇcˇiu Skyrius Vilnius
University Library, Manuscripts Department (Vilnius)
296
Document Collections
: Propam’iatna Knyha Bohdan Huk, ed., : Propam’iatna
Knyha, Warsaw: Tyrsa,
Akcja ‘Wis¬a’ Eugeniusz Misilo, ed., Akcja ‘Wis¬a,’
Warsaw: Archiwum Ukrain´skie,
Armia Krajowa w Armia Krajowa w Dokumentach, vols.,
Dokumentach London: Studium Polski Podziemnej,
–
Deportatsii Iurii Slivka, ed., Deportatsii, vols.,
Lviv: Natsional’na Akademiia Nauk
Ukrainy, –
Deportatsiia poliakiv z Volodymyr Serhiichuk, ed., Deportat-
Ukrainy siia poliakiv z Ukrainy, Kyiv: Ukrains’ka
vydavnycha spilka,
Desiat’ buremnykh lit Volodymyr Serhiichuk, ed., Desiat’ bu-
remnykh lit, Kyiv: Dnipro,
Dzieje Konfliktów Mikolaj Siwicki, ed., Dzieje Konfliktów
Polsko-Ukrain´skich, vols., Warsaw:
privately published, –
Eksterminacja ludnos´ci Wladyslaw Filar, ed., Eksterminacja ludnos´ci pol-
polskiej na Wo¬yniu skiej na Wo¬yniu, Warsaw: Zaklad Poligrafii,
Etnichni mezhi i derzhavnyi Volodymyr Serhiichuk, ed., Etnichni mezhi i
kordon Ukrainy derzhavnyi kordon Ukrainy, Ternopil’: Ternopil’,
Litopys UPA Litopys UPA, multiple editors, multiple volumes,
ser. and , Toronto –
OUN-UPA v roky viiny Volodomyr Serhiichuk, ed., OUN-UPA v roky
viiny, Kyiv: Dnipro,
OUN v svitli postanov OUN v svitli postanov Velykykh Zboriv, Munich:
Velykykh Zboriv OUN,
NKWD o Polsce i Polakach Wojciech Materski and Andrzej Paczkowski,
eds., NKWD o Polsce i Polakach, Warsaw: ISP
PAN,
Pereselennia poliakiv ta Pereselennia poliakiv ta ukraintsiv/Przedsiedlenia
ukraintsiv Polaków i Ukrainców, –, Warsaw: Rytm,
Povstans’ki mohyly Evhen Misylo, ed., Povstans’ki mohyly, Warsaw:
Ukrains’kyi Arkhiv,
Przesiedlenie ludnos´ci Stanislaw Cieselski, ed., Przesiedlenie ludnos´ci
polskiej polskiej z kresów wschodnich, Warsaw: Neriton,
Repatriacja Eugeniusz Misilo, eds., Repatriacja czy depor-
tacja? vols. Warsaw: Archiwum Ukrain´skie
–
Represyvno-karal’na systema Ivan Bilas, ed., Represyvno-karal’na systema v
Ukraini, Kyiv: Lybid,
S
´
ladami ludobojstwa Leon Karlowicz and Leon Popek, eds., S
´
ladami
ludobojstwa na Wo¬yniu, vol. , Lublin: Polihym-
nia,
Sovetskii faktor T. V. Volokitina, ed., Sovetskii faktor v Vostochnoi
Evrope –, vol. , Moscow: Sibirskii
khronograf,
Teczka specjalna J. W. Tatiana Cariewskaja, Andrzej Chmielarz,
Stalina Andrzej Paczkowski, Ewa Rosowska, Szymon
Rudnicki, eds., Teczka specjalna J. W. Stalina,
Warsaw: Rytm,
Document Collections
297
Trahedia Ukraintsiv Volodymyr Serhiichuk, ed., Trahedia Ukraintsiv
Pol’shchi Pol’shchi, Ternopil’: Ternopil’,
UPA v svitli pols’kykh Evhen Misylo, ed., UPA v svitli pols’kykh doku-
dokumentiv mentiv, Toronto: Litopys UPA,
Vostochnaia Evropa T. V. Volokitina, ed., Vostochnaia Evropa v doku-
mentakh rossiiskikh arkhivov, –, vol. ,
Moscow: Sibirskii khronograf,
Document Collections
298
Notes
299
CHAPTER 1. THE GRAND DUCHY OF LITHUANIA (1569 –1863)
. Juliusz Bardach, Studia z ustroju i prawa Wielkiego Ksie˛stwa Litewskiego, War-
saw: PWN, , ‒; S.C. Rowell, Lithuania Ascending, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, , –; Zigmas Zinkevicˇius, The His-
tory of the Lithuanian Language, Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopediju leidykla,
, –. On Poles and Germans, Paul Knoll, The Rise of the Polish
Monarchy, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, .
. Reprinted as Bibliia: Faksimil’nae uznaulenne Biblii, vydadzenai Frantsyskam
Skarynaiu u – gadakh, Minsk: Belaruskaia savetskaia entsyklapedyia,
–. His Church Slavonic was colored by the vernacular of the Slavic
gentry of the Grand Duchy, and influenced by the Czech of the Bible from
which he worked in Prague. J. Sadouski, “A Linguistic Analysis of the Four
Books of Kings Printed by Skaryna in ,” Doctoral dissertation, University
of London, , –. For Skaryna’s vernacular prose, Pradmovy i
pasliasloui pasliadounikau Frantsyska Skaryny, Minsk: Navuka i tekhnika,
; see also Arnold McMillin, Die Literatur der Weissrussen, Giessen: Wil-
helm Schmitz, , –.
. Moshe Altbauer, The Five Biblical Scrolls in a Sixteenth-Century Jewish Trans-
lation into Belarusian (Vilnius Codex ), Jerusalem: Dorot, , –. See
also Paul Wexler, “The Reconstruction of Pre-Ashkenazic Jewish Settlements
in the Slavic Lands in the Light of the Linguistic Sources,” in Antony Polonsky, ed.,
From Shtetl to Socialism, London: Littman Library, , –.
. Zbiór praw litewskich od roku do roku tudziez˙ Rozprawy sejmowe o tychz
˙
e
prawach od roku do roku , Poznan´: Drukarnia na Garbarach , , . Privi-
leges authorized Jews to maintain their law and religion, to use their own language and
customs in community matters, and to trade without municipal citizenship. Consult Ja-
cob Goldberg, Jewish Privileges in the Polish Commonwealth, Jerusalem: Israel Academy
of Sciences and Humanities, , –.
. A feat repeated in modern times, when the Statute was translated into Russian in
Minsk in so that Soviet scholars could study it. Then the claim was made that the
language, patently not Russian, was in fact Belarusian: K.I. Iablonskis, ed., Statut Ve-
likogo Kniazhestva Litovskogo goda, Minsk: Akademiia nauk BSSR, , –. It is
most reasonable to see Chancery Slavonic as a separate entity. Consult Jonas Z
ˇ
muidzi-
nas, Commonwealth polono-lithuanien ou l’Union de Lublin, Paris: Mouton, , –
; Juliusz Bardach, “Od aktu w Krewie do Zare˛czenia Wzajemnego Obojga Narodów,”
in Jerzy Kloczowski, et al., eds., Unia Lubelska i tradycje integracyjne w Europie s´rodkowo-
wschodniej, Lublin: IESW, , –; Stanislovas Lazutka, “Je˛zyk Statutów Litewskich
i Metryki Litewskiej,” Lithuania, – (–), , –.
. Introduction to the Statute, written in about by Augustinus Rotundus
Mieleski, in Archiwum Komisji Prawniczej, Vol. , Cracow: Polska Akademia Umiejet-
nósci, , xx; see also Jürate Kiapene, “The Grand Duchy and the Grand Dukes in the
Sixteenth Century,” in Richard Butterworth, ed., The Polish-Lithuanian Monarchy in
European Context, Houndmills: Palgrave, , –.
. Halina Dzerbina, Prava i siamia u Belarusi epokhi Renesansu, Minsk: Tekhnalohiia,
.
. Harvey Goldblatt, “The Emergence of Slavic National Languages,” in Aldo Scaglione,
The Emergence of National Languages, Ravenna: Loggo Editore, , , .
. Karin Friedrich, The Other Prussia, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, .
. On the political system, Andrzej Kamin´ski, “The Szlachta of the Polish-Lithuanian
Commonwealth,” in Ivo Banac and Paul Bushkovitch, eds., The Nobility in Russia and
Eastern Europe, New Haven, Conn.: Yale Russian and East European Publications, ,
–; and Mariusz Markiewicz, “The Functioning of the Monarchy During the Reign
of the Electors of Saxony,” in Butterwick, Polish-Lithuanian Monarchy, –. See also
Daniel Stone, The Polish-Lithuanian State, –, Seattle: University of Washington
Press, .
. Concise reviews of the historiography of the Lublin Union are Bardach, Studia z ustroju
i prawa, –, and Z
ˇ
muidzinas, Commonwealth polono-lithuanien, –. Important
Russian interpretations of are presented by M.K. Liubavskii and I.I. Lappo. Foun-
dational Polish, Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Lithuanian views are presented by Joachim
Lelewel, Mykhailo Hrushevs’kyi, M.V. Dovnar-Zapolskii, and Adolfas S
ˇ
apoka. The
leading interwar Polish students of the Union were Oskar Halecki and Stanislaw
Kutrzeba; an important Soviet Belorussian contribution was that of V.I. Picheta; a
Moravian Pan-Slav perspective is to be found in Francis Dvornik. An introduction in
Notes to Pages 19–22
300
English is Harry Dembkowski, The Union of Lublin, Boulder, Colo.: East European
Monographs, .
. Pagan Lithuanian families had converted to Catholicism en masse in , but most
Lithuanian boyars were Orthodox and remained so for two more centuries. There were
considerably more Orthodox than Catholic churches in Vilnius when the Reformation
began.
. Jerzy Ochman´ski, “The National Idea in Lithuania,” in Ivo Banac and Frank Sysyn,
eds., Concepts of Nationhood in Early Modern Europe, Cambridge, Mass.: Ukrainian Re-
search Institute, , –.
. Piotr Skarga’s numerous publications concerning both Protestantism and Orthodoxy af-
ter are the best evidence. Pisma wszystkie, vols. Warsaw: Ultima Thule, –.
. The defense of Lithuania is Rozmowa Polaka z Litwinem, Brest: Drukarnia Radziwil-
lowska, . Its author was already “rotund” when his yearly subsidy from the Polish
crown was arranged in , two years before he moved to Lithuania. Maurycy Krup-
wicz, ed., Sobranie gosudarstvennykh i chastnykh aktov, kasaiushchikhsia istorii Litvy i
soedinennykh s nei vladienii, Vilnius: Zavadzkago, , –; Marja Baryczowa, “Au-
gustyn Rotundus Mieleski, wójt wilen´ski, pierwszy historyk i apologeta Litwy,” Ateneum
Wilen´skie, (), . It is remotely possible that Rotundus considered himself a
scholar who could produce well-rounded sentences, phrases bien arrondies. In Classical
Latin, it was possible to use “rotundus” to mean “well-rounded,” as in prose; the first oc-
currence of this sense was perhaps in Cicero’s Orator, which Rotundus knew. Yet this
possibility was as remote in the sixteenth century as it is now: our Rotundus was proba-
bly just fat. To understand the difference between early modern and modern nationality
requires a sense of when the meaning of words change and when they do not: to be “ro-
tund” in the sixteenth century is the same as to be “rotund” today; to be “Polish” or
“Lithuanian” is certainly not.
. Paul Bushkovitch, “National Consciousness in Early Modern Russia,” in Banac and
Sysyn, Concepts of Nationhood, –; Jaroslaw Pelenski, “The Origins of the Official
Muscovite Claim to the ‘Kievan Inheritance,’” Harvard Ukrainian Studies, , (),
–.
. Andrzej Kamin´ski, Republic vs. Autocracy, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
.
. See chart , p. . This is also clear from a chronological review of the collections pub-
lished by the Vilenskaia arkheograficheskaia kommissia in the series “Akty, izdavaemye
Vilenskoiu arkheograficheskoiu kommissieiu,” “Akty, izdavaemye Arkheograficheskoiu
kommissieiu, vysochaishe uchrezhdennoiu v Vil’nie,” and “Akty, izdavaemye Vilen-
skoiu kommissieiu dlia razbora drevnikh aktov.”
.Artu¯ras Teresˇkinas, “Reconsidering the Third of May Constitution and the Rhetoric of
Polish-Lithuanian Reforms,” Journal of Baltic Studies, , (), . See also An-
drzej Walicki, The Enlightenment and the Birth of Modern Nationhood, Notre Dame,
Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, . On Enlightment debates about Polish re-
form, Larry Wolff, Inventing Eastern Europe, Stanford: Stanford University Press, –
.
Notes to Pages 22–25
301
. For an introduction to this issue, see Gershon David Hundert, “Some Basic Character-
istics of the Jewish Experience in Poland,” in Polonsky, From Shtetl to Socialism, –;
M.J. Rosman, The Lords’ Jews, Cambridge, Mass.: Ukrainian Research Institute, ,
–. The locus classicus is Salo Wittmayer Baron, A Social and Religious History of the
Jews, vol. , New York: Columbia University Press, .
. Jacob Goldberg, “Privileges Granted to Jewish Communities As a Stabilizing Factor in
Jewish Support,” in Chimen Abramsky, Maciej Jachimczyk, and Antony Polonsky, eds.,
The Jews in Poland, Oxford: Blackwell, , –; Daniel Beauvois, “Polish-Jewish re-
lations in Russian territory,” ibid., ; Artur Eisenbach, The Emancipation of the Jews in
Poland, –, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, , –, –.
. Mickiewicz himself would later marry a woman of Jewish descent. Mickiewicz’s compli-
cated origins are simply a variation on a theme: the historian Joachim Lelewel (–
), the outstanding teacher at Wilno when Mickiewicz studied and the greatest Pol-
ish historian of his day, was the son of a German nobleman. For Mickiewicz ethnic no-
tions of nationality were meaningless, so one cannot establish what he “really” was by
“unmasking” his parents or grandparents. Introductions to the debate over Mickiewicz’s
origins are Anne Applebaum, Between East and West, London: Macmillan, , –
; Irena Grudzin´ska-Gross, “How Polish is Polishness?” East European Politics and So-
cieties, , (), ff.; Neal Ascherson, Black Sea, New York: Hill and Wang, ,
ff. For the Tatar Mosque, see Jan Tyszkiewicz, Tatarzy na Litwie i w Polsce, Warsaw:
PWN, , . The fundamental work is Wiktor Weintraub, The Poetry of Adam
Mickiewicz, The Hague: Mouton, , at – for these questions.
. The expansion of Polish schooling in the Russian empire did not involve the Jews. In
Vilnius, Russian rather than Polish provided Jews a window upon the wider world.
. A. Bendzhius et al., Istoriia Vil’niusskogo universiteta, Vilnius: Mokslas, , –;
Daniel Beauvois, Szkolnictwo polskie na ziemiach litewsko-ruskich –, vol. ,
Lublin: KUL, , –, –. The case of a Lithuanian Pole whose career was al-
lowed by a Russian tsar creating durable emblems of Polish patriotism is hardly unique.
Another such is Michal Kleofas Ogin´ski ( –), whose Polonaise “Farewell to the
Fatherland” in A minor is the most resonant of Polish Baroque compositions.
. Compare Mickiewicz’s lines about a lost Lithuania to Pushkin’s about a discovered St.
Petersburg: “Here we are destined by nature / To cut a window into Europe / To stand
firmly by the sea.” Eugene Onegin was finished in , Pan Tadeusz in . Pushkin and
Mickiewicz were friends. See Jerzy Tomaszewski, “Kresy wschodnie w polskiej mys´li
politycznej,” in Wojciech Wrzezin´ski, ed., Mie˛dzy Polska˛ etniczna˛ i historyczna˛, Wro-
claw: Ossolineum, ; ff.; also I.I. Svirida, Mezhdu Peterburgom, Varshavoi i Vil’no,
Moscow: OGI, .
. Jacques Barzun, Classic, Romantic, and Modern, Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, , .
. Nina Taylor, “Adam Mickiewicz et la Lithuanie,” in Daniel Beauvois, ed., Les confins de
l’ancienne Pologne, Lille: Presses Universitaires, , .
. N.N. Ulashchik, Predposylki krest’ianskoi reformy g. v Litve i Zapadnoi Belorussii,
Moscow: Nauka, , –.
. Jakób Gieysztor, Pamie˛tniki, Vol. , Vilnius: Bibljoteka Pamie˛tników, , , , .
. For his newspaper in the original and in Russian, K. Kalinovskii, Iz pechatnogo i
Notes to Pages 25–30
302
rukopisnogo naslediia, Minsk: Belarus, . See also Piotr Lossowski and Zygmunt Mly-
narski, Rosjanie, Bia¬orusini, i Ukrain´cy w Powstaniu Styczniowym, Wroclaw: Osso-
lineum, , –; John Stanley, “The Birth of a Nation,” in Béla Király, ed., The
Crucial Decade, New York: Brooklyn College Press, –.
. Egidijus Aleksandravicˇius, “Political Goals of Lithuanians, –,” Journal of Baltic
Studies, , (), –; Nerijus Udrenas, “Book, Bread, Cross, and Whip: The
Construction of Lithuanian Identity within Imperial Russia,” Doctoral dissertation,
Brandeis University, .
CHAPTER 2. LITHUANIA! MY FATHERLAND!
. Andreas Moritsch, “The January Insurrection and the Emancipation of Peasants in the
Polish—Russian Provinces,” in Béla Király, eds., The Crucial Decade, New York: Brook-
lyn College Press, –.
. Algis Kasperovicˇius, “Ksztaltowanie sie˛ narodu litewskiego,” in Krzysztof Jasiewicz, ed.,
Europa nie prowincjonalna, Warsaw: Rytm, , –; Miroslav Hroch, Social Pre-
conditions of National Revival in Europe, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ,
; Vytautas Merkys, “Biskup Motiejus Valanczius a polityka narodowos´ciowa rza˛du
Rosji,” in Jerzy Kloczowski et al., eds., Belarus, Lithuania, Poland, Ukraine, Lublin:
IESW, , –.
. On Polish positivism, Jerzy Jedlicki, A Suburb of Europe, Budapest: Central European
Press, ; Stanislaus Blejwas, Realism in Polish Politics, New Haven, Conn.: Yale Con-
cilium on International and Area Studies, .
. Teodor Narbutt, Dzieje narodu litewskiego, vol. , Vilnius: Marcinkowskiego, , .
. Virgil Krapauskas, Nationalism and Historiography, Boulder, Colo.: East European Mono-
graphs, , , .
. Tomas Venclova, “Native Realm Revisited: Mickiewicz’s Lithuania and Mickiewicz in
Lithuania,” cited after the manuscript, –, published in Polish in Zeszyty Literackie,
(). A similar role was played by the poetry of Józef Ignacy Kraszewski. On Daukan-
tas see also Jonas Z
ˇ
muidzinas, Commonwealth polono-lithuanien ou l’Union de Lublin,
Paris: Mouton, , .
. Jean Pelissier, Les principaux artisans de la Renaissance Nationale Lituanienne, Lausanne:
Léman, , –. Compare also the last two lines of Mickiewicz’s popular “Ode to
Youth” (): “Hail, hail, the dawn of freedom / and salvation’s sun to come.”
. Jerzy Ochman´ski, Litewski ruch narodowo-kulturalny w XIX wieku, Bialystok: PAN,
, ff.; Krapauskas, Nationalism and Historiography, .
.Jirˇí Rak, By´valí C
ˇ
echové, Prague: H&H, , –. Consult also Vladimír Macura,
C
ˇ
esky´ sen, Prague: Lidové noviny, , –.
. David Diringer, The Alphabet, Vol. , New York: Funk and Wagnall, , –.
. Francis Dvornik, The Slavs in European History and Civilization, New Brunswick, N.J.:
Rutgers University Press, , –; Norman Davies, God’s Playground, vol. , New
York: Columbia University Press, , .
. This argument about nationalism’s spread draws from Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism,
Cambridge: Harvard University Press, .
Notes to Pages 36 –37
303