Sioshansi F.P. Smart Grid: Integrating Renewable, Distributed & Efficient Energy
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should all be converted into DDC.
23
This amount, 140 MW,
is more than enough to cover all the frequency reserves
currently needed and some of the instantaneous reserves.
Adding a large fleet of EVs to the system will add to the
controllable load, allowing more of the savings in provision
of ancillary services to be obtained.
23
The calculation is based on data on refrigeration load and number of
appliances per household from BRANZ [20] and household projections
from Statistics NZ. In 2021, there will be approximately 1.9 million
households, and even assuming a 40% efficiency improvement of new
refrigerators and freezers, it will have an average demand of about 140
MW.
An estimate in the UK indicates that a typical under-counter
fridge-freezer could “earn” around £30 during its life from
allowing thermal generators to run more and run more
efficiently.
24
The DDC chip allowing this is expected to be
significantly cheaper, providing a good business case for
producers of refrigerators.
24
See http://www.dynamicdemand.co.uk/pdf_economic_case.pdf.
Conclusions
New Zealand's island power system currently experiences
large frequency fluctuations. These fluctuations are expected
to increase with the connection of large-scale wind generation
and the charging of large numbers of electric vehicles unless
there is some coordination of these resources. There is also a
great opportunity to reduce wind and EV integration costs by
coordinating the charging of EVs with the variability of wind
generation output. This chapter has explored two ways in
which this can be achieved.
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First, time-of-use pricing signals will provide incentives for
owners of EVs to charge their vehicles at times when
electricity costs are low and the grid is unconstrained. This
reduces market integration costs for both wind generation and
EVs and defers the need for transmission and generation
investment. Prices can be adapted to reflect constraints on the
distribution network, allowing further deferment of
investment.
Higher wind penetration levels lower the cost of recharging
electric vehicles, especially if recharging is flexible. Flexible
recharging increases the value of intermittent generation into
the power system. The cheaper costs resulting from flexible
charging will allow incentives that can be paid to electric
vehicle owners to ensure smart charging.
Second, in New Zealand and elsewhere there is an
opportunity to reduce the effects of the variability of wind
generation output and electric vehicle charging through DDC.
This technology has the potential to significantly reduce the
costs of operating the power system by providing a low-cost
alternative to generation-based frequency control and
instantaneous reserves.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Kevin Lao, Transpower, and
Sarah Smith, Transpower, for the valuable contribution to the
modeling behind the results presented in the section “The
Opportunity at Hand,” which is a large part of the work
reported on in here. Also, the authors are grateful for the
comments and guidance from the editor, which helped to
improve the chapter significantly.
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Chapter 19. Impact of Smart EVs on
Day-Ahead Prices in the French Market
Margaret Armstrong, Amira Iguer, Valeriia Iezhova,
Jérôme Adnot, Philippe Rivière and Allain Galli
Chapter Outline
Introduction 479
Effect of EVs on the Power System as a Whole 484
Predicting the Impact of Changes in Supply and Demand
on Electricity Prices 484
Approach 487
Simulating the Supply Side 488
Simulating the Demand Side 490
Results for the Year 2020 490
Impact on the Average Price 494
Interpreting the Results on “Market Curtailment” 496
Conclusions 497
Acknowledgments 498
References 498
This chapter examines the impact that the introduction of electric cars would have on day-ahead
electricity prices over the next 10–15 years, using the French grid as a case study
The authors are interested in statistically predicting the impact of EVs on the network by simulating the
offers to buy and sell electricity on the day-ahead market The two scenarios for recharging the EVs
considered include the case where the grid can draw power from the batteries when prices are
high—the vehicle-to-grid (V2G) concept Most studies on the impact of wind power on day-ahead
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prices make two strong assumptions, namely that the demand is inelastic and/or supply is the same as
the merit order
The major contribution of the chapter is to propose a method for modeling the offers to buy and sell
power on the wholesale market in the absence of such restrictive assumptions
Electric vehicles, day-ahead markets, France
Introduction
In 2007 the leaders of the European Union (EU) endorsed an
ambitious integrated climate and energy policy that aims to
combat climate change and increase the EU's energy security
while strengthening its competitiveness. To kick-start the
process, they set a series of demanding climate and energy
targets that are known as the 20-20-20 targets.
1
These call for
1
See http://ec.europa.eu/europe2020/targets/eu-targets/index_en.htm.
• a reduction of at least 20% in EU greenhouse gas
emissions below 1990 levels,
• 20% of EU energy consumption to come from renewable
resources,
• a 20% reduction in primary energy use compared with
projected levels, to be achieved by improving energy
efficiency.
Compared to many of its neighbors France has been slow in
developing renewable sources. At present, electricity in
France is 75% nuclear, 13% hydro-power, and 10%
fossil-fuel thermal, with only 2% from renewable energy
sources other than hydropower (Figure 19.1). To remedy this
situation the government plans to introduce large quantities of
wind power.
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Figure 19.1
Energy Mix in France: 75% nuclear, 13% hydro-power, 10% fossil fuel
thermal, and 2% renewable.
Source: RTE [1]
Other changes will also affect the French power generation
fleet over the next 15 years: the nuclear plants built in the
1970s and 1980s are reaching the critical 40-year mark
2
and
will require more maintenance (some might be
decommissioned); two new third-generation nuclear plants
have been ordered, and several new gas-powered turbines are
being constructed to meet the demand in peak and semi-peak
periods. In addition since the recent nuclear problems in
Japan, there have been calls for a reduction on the reliance on
nuclear power. So there is considerable uncertainty on the
supply side.
2
The original lifespan of these plants was planned to be 30 years. After
extensive testing, this was extended to 40 years, with the possibility of
further extensions out to 50 or 60 years.
The introduction of electric vehicles is one of the measures
envisaged for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and also air
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pollution levels in cities. Plans call for the number of EVs
3
to
rise from a few thousand at present to 2 million in 2020 and
to 4.5 million in 2025 out of a total of about 20 million
vehicles [2]. This will increase electricity consumption. At a
recent forum on EVs, the French electricity distribution
authority [3] stated that charging 1 million EV simultaneously
would have a significant impact because they would draw
between 3,000 and 6,000 MW, that is, the equivalent of two
to four of the new third-generation nuclear reactors. A quick
calculation shows how much will be required to charge the 2
million EVs that will be on the roads in 2020, and likewise
for the 4.5 million EVs in 2025 (Figure 19.2). As the
government also plans to introduce smart meters into homes
by 2017 to optimize electricity use at the distributional level,
these vehicles will be recharged at night after the evening
peak in consumption is over.
3
The French government and the car manufacturer Renault are focusing
on battery-operated EVs rather than plug-in hybrid EVs.
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