Scott W. See. The History of Canada. Second Edition

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country’s major industries in timber, pulp, and paper; its water

systems provide much of the country’s hydroelectricity. A proverbial

mixed blessing, the Canadian Shield looms large in Canadian history.

It may be home to relatively few Amerindians and whites, but it held

and continues to hold a magnetic attraction for trappers, hunters,

miners, timber cutters, hikers, photographers, and artists. Perhaps no

other landform kindles the imagination as much as the great

Canadian Shield; it is at once a place to be admired and exploited.

Well into North America’s interior, the Shield yields to another

dominant landscape: the expansive interior plains. Also reaching in a

north-south fashion, the plains dominate the continent’s interior from

the southern United States to the arctic tundra of northern Canada. The

key plains landform is the prairie of southern Manitoba, Saskatch-

ewan, and Alberta. The rolling prairies, once home to nomadic Native

peoples and millions of buffalo have become over time the country’s

grain belt. The production of grains, including wheat, oilseed, canola,

soy, and barley, is a central focus of prairie agriculture. In addition,

livestock and oil and gas development became extremely important

sectors of the prairie economy in the twentieth century.

The prairies abruptly run up against the Western Cordilleras, a

system of magnificent mountain chains, steep valleys, and plateaus.

These include the Rockies and a succession of ranges heading

westward to the Pacific coast. In much of British Columbia, the

mountain ranges literally drop into the sea, giving Canada’s

geography an abrupt and exquisite finale. This region encompasses

British Columbia, the Yukon Territory, and some of the western parts

of the Northwest Territories. Little of this terrain is arable, with the

major exceptions being the Fraser River Valley and southern

Vancouver Island. The compressed mountains, which also run in a

north-south pattern, hold dense forests, mineral deposits, and water

systems for hydroelectric power. Fishing stocks on the Pacific

seaboard, once considered inexhaustible, are now in decline. Some

of the world’s most beautiful scenery is to be found in this region, so it

should be no surprise to discover that some of Canada’s most

impressive national parks are located here.

Finally, the country’s northern reaches, including the Hudson Bay

Lowlands along the southwestern shores of the huge salt water bay,

the Arctic Lowlands, and the Arctic archipelago of islands,

encompass an area that few Canadians have ever seen. The home

10 An Overwhelming Landscape: The Geography of Canada

to Inuit and other northern Amerindians, much of the Far North is

covered in ice for all or most of the year; it is characterized by

permafrost, making it an area essentially devoid of agricultural

pursuits. In the early twenty-first century scientists continue to amass

compelling evidence that rising temperatures have had a dramatic

impact on the permafrost and ecosystem of the North. Yet even with

the accelerating effects of global warming, the vast region is

overwhelmingly inhospitable. On the other hand, the ground holds

mineral deposits and identified storehouses of oil and natural gas.

The extraction of these resources, already underway in some

locations, appeals to developers who want to exploit the potential

of this area. At the same time, it raises questions about the territorial

rights of Native peoples and environmental concerns.

Hence, the landscape of Canada is dominated by distinctive

regions, most of them enormous and essentially running in a north-

south direction. With the exception of the Far North and most of the

Canadian Shield, these regions cut across the international border

between the United States and Canada. Complicating this pattern

are the country’s major waterways. While there are many rivers and

lakes that flow across the current international border, for the most

part Canada’s rivers drain into the Atlantic, Pacific, and Arctic

oceans and Hudson Bay through Canadian territory. The great river

systems in Canadian history, from the St. Lawrence River in the

East to the Mackenzie River in the Northwest, have provided

transportation and communication linkages throughout history to

the modern era.

The country ’ s regions are also typified by varied climatic patterns.

Much of Canada’s southern portion is temperate, with long winters

and short summers. Parts of southern British Columbia experience

great rainfall and mild winter temperatures, while southern Ontario’s

summer is often extremely hot and humid. The plains region, as in the

United States, experiences great temperature fluctuations, with

extremely cold winters followed by hot and dry summers. The

Atlantic region has weather patterns that are quite similar to those of

New England, its seasons punctuated by distinct changes. Thus, both

ocean coasts moderate the temperatures, while in the interior the

seasonal highs and lows tend to be more dramatic. The Far North is

permanently frozen, with extremely cold temperatures through much

of the year, while the tundra of the near Arctic experiences very cold

An Overwhelming Landscape: The Geography of Canada 11

and long winters and a brief summer that bring out an impressive

variety of hearty vegetation. The Arctic and the central part of

the prairies, especially Saskatchewan’s southwestern portion, com-

prise the country’s driest regions.

These climatic zones mean that the vast majority of people involved

in agricultural pursuits are forced to cope with short growing seasons,

which severely limits the kinds of crops that Canada can produce.

While wine grapes and other fruits are grown in Ontario, British

Columbia, and Nova Scotia, short growing seasons are the norm for

the remaining productive land. Only about five percent of Canada’s

land is arable, and over half of the country is covered in forests and

woodlands. This leads to four points that heavily influenced Canadian

history. First, farmers in the country have generally been forced to

use marginal soil and grapple with extremely challenging climatic

patterns; thus, they have favored grains and hearty root crops that

can tolerate such conditions. Second, Canadians became skilled

in developing strains of crops that are adapted to the country’s

particular characteristics. Moreover, much of the country’s landscape

has been profoundly altered by damming and irrigation systems.

Third, as has been the case around the globe, the transformation of

Canada’s ecology has triggered unintended consequences that have

harmed the environment along with bringing a more bountiful

production. These issues demand, but do not always receive, attention.

Fourth, the northern orientation has forced Canadians to rely heavily

on importing produce that either cannot be grown locally, such as

citrus fruits, or can be raised in only limited quantities.

In sum, Canada’s sheer size, its geographical landforms, its

tremendous variety of resources, its limited but abundant vegetation,

and its varied climatic patterns have combined to shape historical

developments in numerous ways. While geography and weather are

not entirely deterministic in any country’s history, they prescribe a

range of possible courses of human activity. Early settlers, for

example, quickly realized that the severe and long winters along the

St. Lawrence River would afford only limited possibilities for crops.

Individuals have been adapting to and changing their environment

for as long as they have roamed the planet, and Canadians have

certainly not been an exception to that endeavor.

12 An Overwhelming Landscape: The Geography of Canada

Canada’s Polit ical System

Canada’s government springs from a fountain of Western, liberal,

and democratic traditions. It integrates Britain’s parliamentary

behavior with aspects of federalism as designed in the United States,

such as a governing constitution, a Senate, and a Supreme Court.

Canada’s continued attachment to the British monarchy, coupled

with a democratically elected government, makes its political system

unique in North America. The country’s Constitution, formerly the

British North America Act, was adopted in 1982. Ten provinces and

three territories make up the country. The provinces, in order of

joining Confederation, are: Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and

Nova Scotia (1867), Manitoba (1870), British Columbia (1871),

Prince Edward Island (1873), Saskatchewan and Alberta (1905),

and Newfoundland (1949). The three territories are the Yukon, the

Northwest Territories, and Nunavut, a self-governing territory of

mostly Inuit created in 1999. Citizens eighteen years of age and over

in the provinces and territories elect their own governments. These

governments reside in provincial capitals and have certain unique

and shared powers with the federal government. Canadians also

elect representatives to the federal government’sHouseofCom-

mons, which meets in Ottawa. The balance of powers between the

federal government, the provinces, groups, and individuals sets the

agenda for much of the political debate in Canada.

The Canadian head of state is the monarch of the United

Kingdom, currently Queen Elizabeth II. The sole remaining connec-

tion between the country and its former imperial master, the

monarchy is a mostly symbolic linkage to the past. The monarch’s

representative in the country is the governor general, an essentially

advisory and ceremonial position that since 1952 has been held by

Canadian citizens. Appointed by the monarch on the advice of the

prime minister, the governor general’s influence has varied widely in

Canadian history according to the personality and activism of the

individual, and the historical landscape of the times in which he or she

has served. Although constitutionally the governor general could

wield enormous powers, in practice the individual acts solely on the

advice of the prime minister.

Canada’s Political System 13

Real political power in Canada emanates from the elected House

of Commons. Canada borrowed the essence of Britain’s parliamen-

tary system, which means that members of the House of Commons

form the government. The party with the most members—whether a

majority or a minority when the total numbers of representatives

from various other parties are tallied—has the opportunity to lead the

country. The head of government is the prime minister, the leader of

the party with the most members. While in a parliamentary system

voters in their ridings, as Canadian electoral districts are called, cast

ballots for a member of Parliament to represent their interests, they

also keep in mind that if they want a certain party, and a particular

political leader to lead the country, then that party must have the

most members. Prime ministers and their appointed cabinets are

given tremendous leeway in setting the political agendas for their

terms in office. If the party in power enjoys a clear majority of

members of Parliament, then typically it has the potential to

implement its political goals. Conversely, if a party has a minority

status, it must appeal to members from other parties to gather enough

votes to pass legislation.

The House of Commons currently has 308 members, elected at

least every five years by law, and representing four major parties and

independents. The ridings are apportioned according to a balance of

tradition and population, with Ontario and Quebec having the

greatest number, with 106 and 75 members, respectively; Quebec’s

numbers are protected by law. Members of Parliament for the rest of

the country are apportioned according to population, not unlike the

U.S. House of Representatives. Quebec’s representative proportion,

which was thirty-six percent of Parliament after Confederation in

1867, is close to twenty-five percent of the current body. This decline,

for Quebecers, has been a matter of concern and has shaped political

disputes in the modern era.

Canadians borrowed the name for their upper house from the

United States, but with a few exceptions, the Senate barely resembles

the modern U.S. version. Designed to be an elite group of appointed

legislators who represent the country ’s regions, the Senate nominally

has tremendous power to veto or amend legislation coming from the

House of Commons. In practice, however, the Senate rarely exercises

its prerogatives. Senators are appointed by the governor general on

the advice of the prime minister, which means that the party in power

14 Canada’s Political System

has a tremendous advantage when vacancies appear. Problems

with the Canadian Senate abound, including the regional apportion-

ment that favors Ontario and Quebec and the body’s nonelected

status. The number of Senators allotted to each province and territory

follows a model that was shaped by political wrangling and the

chronological order of confederating with Canada (Quebec and

Ontario have twenty-four apiece; Nova Scotia and New Brunswick

have ten apiece; Newfoundland and Labrador, Manitoba, Saskatch-

ewan, Alberta, and British Columbia have six apiece; Prince Edward

Island has four; and Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut have

one apiece). Originally appointed for life according to constitutional

documents, Canada’s 105 senators now face mandatory retirement at

age seventy-five.

In judicial matters, Canada uses a federal criminal code that

follows the traditions of English common law. The provinces exercise

control over civil laws; thus Quebec’s civil code, which still reflects

traditions rooted to French civil law, is unique when compared with

that of the other provinces. The final arbiter for legal cases in Canada

is the Supreme Court, a body of justices created in 1875. Nine justices

sit on the Supreme Court. By law, three must be from Quebec, and all

are appointed by the prime minister when vacancies occur. Unlike

their U.S. counterparts, the justices do not receive extensive attention

in the press. The responsibilities and impact of the Supreme Court

have changed dramatically since the late nineteenth century. As late

as 1949 the Judicial Committee of the British Privy Council was used

as the final court for Canadian cases. Since then, however, the

Supreme Court has assumed more of a central role in determining not

just thorny legal cases, but in ruling on Canada’s laws. The creation

of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, part of the 1982 Constitution,

has led to a number of cases that have placed the justices at the

crossroads of politically charged cases (much like their American

counterparts).

Canada’s political and judicial systems have changed extensively

since 1867 when the country was created. Canadians often point to

the concept, as a way of distinguishing the unique nature of their

country’s history, that their systems evolved over time with only

occasional contentious or violent outbursts. The obvious comparison

is to their southern neighbor, which boisterously sought freedom in a

Canada’s Political System 15

revolutionary struggle and then experienced bloody division in the

Civil War. The root points of the comparison are undeniable, but the

superficial contention that Canada’s basically peaceful evolution is

its most important distinguishing feature is flawed on two levels.

First, Canada’s past is not lacking in tumultuous themes that are

comparable to events in the United States or Western Europe. Second,

the “evolution versus revolution” differences between the two national

groups might have been an appropriate conceptual theme for an

earlier era, but events since the ninet eenth century have thoroughly

complicated such a cosmetic approach to understanding the develop-

ment of the country’s political and judicial organizations.

Canada’s Economy

Canada’s economy has been intricately linked to the developing

capitalistic ideals, organizations, and trading patterns of Western

nations in the modern era. Canadians enjoy one of the highest

standards of living in the world. The country’s current gross domestic

product (GDP), the value of all goods and services produced in any

given year, is close to $1.5 trillion. Fully two-thirds of that figure is

derived from service industries, and almost one-third from the

industrial sector. A small fraction of the country’s GDP, about two

percent, is created by agriculture. Since the earliest years of European

settlement, Canada’s economy has been rooted to the production of

raw materials that are in demand outside the country. During the

twentieth century the country became more industrial than agricul-

tural in productive capability and outlook, and in the past few

decades it has adapted to a postindustrial climate of service and high-

tech industries.

The country’s major resources are its minerals, fossil fuels, forest

products, and hydroelectric power. Its primary industries, such as

wood and paper products and oil and natural gas production, process

those resources. In addition, Canadians engage in agriculture and

fishing. The country’s leading secondary industries are automobile

manufacturing, iron and steel construction, machinery and equip-

ment production, and telecommunications. The coupling of its

abundant resources with its manufacturing output makes the

16 Canada’s Economy

country’s economy quite typical in the modern world. While some of

its resources are either shrinking rapidly or endangered, such as its

fishing stocks along both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, Canada

continues to rely on its abilities to market its resources to the world.

With the institution of the Free Trade Agreement with the United

States in 1989 and the North American Free Trade Agreement in

1993, which included Mexico, and its participation in the G20, an

organization comprising some of the world’s strongest economies,

Canada has intensified its international trading patterns. Almost

three-quarters of Canada’s exports go to the United States, while over

half of its imports are from the same country. Canada also trades

extensively with Japan, the United Kingdom, Germany, South Korea,

the Netherlands, China, France, Taiwan, and Mexico. In 2007 its

exports, which include automobiles and car parts, pulp and paper, oil

and natural gas, timber products, minerals, and aluminum, were

valued at $440 billion. The country imports automobiles and car

parts, machinery and equipment, electronics, plastics, chemicals,

consumer goods, and food. Its imports totaled $390 billion during the

same year. While its trade balance is essentially favorable, the

country’s dependence on American markets throughout the modern

era has created a series of problems that plague Canadians and elude

definitive solutions.

Although the country’s economy boomed in the early years of

the twenty-first century, it has suffered as a result of the global

recession that began in 2008. Canadians face significant problems

that are typical in the modern global economy. While it copes with

a mammoth debt of over $500 billion, its deficit—the gap between

tax resources and expenditures—is relatively modest when com-

pared with other industrialized countries. Unemployment in 2010

hovered around eight percent, certainly a healthy figure when

considered in the light of countries whose economies are struggling,

and especially when compared with Canada’s decimated economy

of the 1930s. Nonetheless, Canadians continue to be challenged by

competition from abroad, an extraordinarily high tax base, shifting

markets for their products, international corporate takeovers, and

labor issues. In addition, environmental themes in modern Canada

reflect problems around the globe. Dwindling resources, a reliance on

petroleum products to fuel industry and transportation, pollution that

fouls the country’s air, water, and soil, and fierce contests between

Canada’s Economy 17

expansion-minded industries and environmentally conscious organiza-

tions are but a few of the important problems that continue to seek

workable solutions. Overall, Canada’s economy in the modern era is

the envy of much of the rest of the world in that it helps to create

a generally favorable environment so that most of its citizens enjoy a

measure of well-being.

The Peoples of Canada

There are an estimated thirty-four million Canadians, most clustered

in a band that hugs the U.S. border. Population experts have

compared this demographic image to Chile, meaning that it is long

and narrow. Most of the nation’s largest cities—Toronto, Montreal,

Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary, and Winnipeg—are within one

hundred miles of the U.S. border. Moreover, an estimated ninety

percent of Canadians are concentrated within the same distance of

the United States. The overwhelming majority of Canadians—over

three-quarters—live in urban settings and larger towns, a trend that

has accelerated since the early twentieth century. With a current life

expectancy of eighty-one years at birth, Canada ranks as a world

leader in the quality of life for its citizens. These kinds of population

measures, important for achieving a benchmark for understanding

any nation’s history, are particularly revealing in Canada because

they paint a portrait of a people who, in spite of persistent myths, are

intensely urbanized and modern. Importantly, they are also affected

by the economic and cultural influences of the United States.

Canada’s peoples have created a nation in the modern tradition,

composed of distinctive power centers that range from local commu-

nities, to provincial governments, to regional collectives, to the federal

government. Although it is impossible to capture the sentiments

accurately in a few words, they have also constructed various group,

provincial, regional, and national identities. Sometimes these identities

blend seamlessly. As often as not, however, they strike out in various

directions and thus complicate and enliven societal and political

debates. Canadians have certainly articulated a national identity, as

evidenced in a variety of national memories, patriotic symbols such

as the distinctive maple leaf flag, a national anthem (“O Canada”),

18 The Peoples of Canada

and familiar characterizations such as the Mountie and the beaver

(the latter endlessly and imaginatively employed by writers and

cartoonists, inevitably as a foil to Uncle Sam, the standard U.S.

symbol). These images directly or obliquely allude to ideals that are

distinctively Canadian, such as the French “fact,” the tradition of

supporting Britain in war and peace, even-handed behavior in the

international community of nations, and an ambivalent relationship

with the United States. Often these ideals provide a powerful bonding

agent for Canadians. As many observers have noted, Canadians are

sometimes most unified and clear about their self-identity when they

travel abroad (see “Joe Canadian Rant” in the Documents section).

Nonetheless, tensions abound in the Canadian historical land-

scape, so much of the following work will be given over to an

introduction to some of the most important struggles that have taken

place among the country’s various groups. A French-English duality

clearly provides one of the most enduring frameworks for under-

standing the context for power between governments, regions, and

ethnic groups. Survival (la survivance) of the French language and a

French-Canadian culture is a serious issue for the country’s millions

of francophones. For the more than one million Canadians who claim

Amerindian ancestry, the issues are similar. As has been the case for

centuries, issues of homeland, formal recognition, treaty rights, and

ethnic intolerance infuse the current contest between Native peoples

and other Canadians. Regionalism is an acute dynamic in the

Canadian past and present, offering perennial challenges to main-

taining a workable union and testing the skills of those Canadians

who seek compromise over conflict. The citizens of Canada have long

coped with what many call the “burden of unity.” A vibrant and

distinctive Atlantic region to the east shares little with Quebec.

Neighboring Quebec and Ontario often seem like polar opposites,

although in fact they are not. The prairie region has its own identity

and set of priorities, and the Far West demonstrates a different

orientation that looks to the Pacific Rim and the U.S. Northwest for

trade and cultural linkages. Maintaining a cohesive bond between the

peoples of the various regions has historically been the purview of

the federal government, but in truth Canadians, acting as either

individuals or in groups, have long made it their business to weigh in

on the great national unity debate.

The Peoples of Canada 19