Scott W. See. The History of Canada. Second Edition

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Foreword

This retelling of my story, the story of my country and of my

ancestors and relatives, is vividly accomplished. Scott See’s narrative

encompasses many Canadian stories: French and English fur-traders

taking “country wives” à la façon du pays; the impact of France’s

decision to cede New France to England after “The Conquest”;

insurgents fighting the Family Compact in Ontario in the 1830’s;

refugees arriving in Grosse Île, dying or fanning out across the

country; soldiers returning from the killing fields in France only to

march in the Winnipeg General Strike (1919) for justice; soldiers

serving with the UN peace-keeping forces in Cyprus; and Canadians

anxiously watching Québécois voters deciding the fate of Canada in

two referendums on separation. Stories similar in broad strokes to

American stories, yet different in details.

Why study the history of Canada? Professor See believes that

studying another country’s history helps those with inquiring minds

to better understand themselves. The History of Canada, a sweeping

overview written by an American, certainly helped this Canadian

understand the forces that have shaped Canada, her history and her

culture.

See captures the essence of what it is to be a Canadian, our pride

in our country and our preoccupation with self-identity. He discloses

the historical reasons behind Canadians’ patriotism: social programs

that leave no citizen behind; the Canadian role on the world stage

as a middle power contributing to a more just and peaceful world;

contributions to science, medicine, the arts. The Canadian Broad-

casting Corporation was created with a mandate to encourage the

development of a national identity and culture. It succeeded. Today,

I can instantly bond with Canadians anywhere by name-dropping: As

It Happens; Man Alive; Friendly Giant; Hockey Night in Canada;

and The McKenzie Brothers.

Other than by rebels and Fenians, no shot has been fired across

the border since the horrific battle at Lundy’s Lane in July 1814, but

Foreword xiii

that doesn’t mean Canadians and Americans see the world the same.

Canadian historians would disagree with the reasons given by

Professor See to explain why Quebec was so dramatically against

conscription during both world wars. See argues that it came from an

underlying anger in Quebec against France for ceding New France to

England under the Treaty of Paris, 1763. Canadian historians see it as

anger against citizens being drafted to serve in wars on a foreign soil.

In another example, Professor See presents the American point of

view when explaining the cessation of the Avro Arrow program, but

not the prevalent Canadian viewpoint.

Canadians and Americans may never agree on many historical

questions. In The History of Canada, Scott See has produced a

thoughtful commentary on Canadian history for Americans. It

provides the groundwork for understanding and debate on themes

and questions about Canada’s history. The essence of Canada’s

history and our quest for self-identity is captured. I am glad to have

read this retelling of my heritage.

Marianne E. Reid, MLS, Librarian

Brandon University

Brandon, Manitoba, Canada

xiv Foreword

Preface to the Second Edition

This Second Edition includes a new chapter that covers the first

decade of the twenty-first century as well as revisions to the material

from the 2001 edition that was published by Greenwood Press as part

of its Histories of the Modern Nations series. The section on the

Notable People in the History of Canada has been expanded, a

number of maps and photographs have been added, and the Timeline

of Historical Events has been brought up to date. This edition also

includes a new section of Primary Documents. These were selected to

enhance the text and give the reader insight to the kinds of evidentiary

material that historians use to construct the complex portrait of a

nation. I sought to provide a representative assortment that addresses

the country’s political, economic, diplomatic, social, and cultural

experiences. It is my hope that they will supplement and thereby

enrich the basic narrative of Canada’s history from the contact period

between Native peoples and European explorers to the close of the

twenty-first century’s inaugural decade.

As I stated in Chapter 1:

Why study the history of Canada? For seven consecutive

years in the 1990s, the United Nations Human Development

Program proclaimed the vast nation that sits atop the North

American continent to be the best country on earth,

according to an index that includes quality of life, income,

and education. By 2005, the UN ranked Canada fourth in

the world. Yet in spite of this powerful and compelling

evidence of the country’s global stature, misconceptions

continue to skew our sense of the Canadian past.... A

persistent and misleading assumption implies that Canada’s

history, while occasionally distinctive, is essentially a pale

reflection of the more intriguing and lively saga of the nation

to its immediate south: the United States. The Americans, the

Preface to the Second Edition xv

idea has it, [believe that] their essentially passive neighbors,

while occasionally worthy of some note, have essentially trod

a national trail that was clearly blazed by others. Neither

point holds merit.

Acknowledgments

For a number of years I considered the possibility of updating and

enhancing The History of Canada, so I was pleased when Grey House

Publishing invited me to do so.

I am thankful for the support and creative guidance I received from

Laura Mars, Kristen Thatcher, and Diana Delgado at Grey House. The

planning and initial work for this edition was made possible by a

generous Senior Fellowship from the Canadian Embassy in Washing-

ton, DC. In addition, I am grateful for the support of Stephen Hornsby

and the Canadian-American Center at the University of Maine. Thanks

to Tanya Buckingham for producing the maps, and to the staff at

Library and Archives Canada for their help in selecting and ordering

many of the visuals that were used in this edition. The staff at the

University of Maine’s Fogler Library, especially Betsy Beattie, cheerfully

offered their assistance in finding sources. I greatly appreciate Stefano

Tijerina’s efforts to identify some of the paintings and photographs that

were added to this edition. I also owe a debt of gratitude to my

colleague Richard Judd for reading sections of the new material and for

his helpful suggestions. I value the constant encouragement that I

receive from my daughters, Hadley and Hilary. As has been the case in

every one of my major writing projects, Mylese See read the entire

manuscript and offered her insightful editorial advice. Any mistakes

and shortcomings in this revised edition, of course, remain my own.

Scott W. See

xvi Preface to the Second Edition

Introduction

This second edition of The History of Canada is the first published by

Grey House Publishing. The first edition was published by Green-

wood Press in 2001.This ten-year update not only reflects Canada’s

trials and triumphs in the past decade, but also includes a significant

amount of new material and features.

Arrangement & Content

Front Matter is an illustrated history lesson. It includes full color

maps and national and provincial flags and emblems, as well as

lyrics of the national anthem, and photos of prime ministers

and governors general. With a Foreword written by librarian

Marianne Reid of Brandon University in Manitoba, and the

author’s Preface, readers have a firm grasp of the world’s second

largest country before even turning to the first chapter.

The main body of text in this new edition consists of eleven

chapters, one more than in 2001. They are arranged chronologi-

cally, taking the reader from the first wave of migration 12,000

years ago to today’s film and sports industries that cross

international borders. Each chapter is amply subtitled, providing

logical steps from one period in Canadian history to another. From

Early Exploration to the Quebec Experiment to the Canadian

Nationalism Triumph to the Nuances of Modern Politics,this

edition offers tremendous value for novices of Canadian history as

well as those whose generational family lived through every stage of

the country’s progression.

In addition, this new edition is supported by photographs and

maps, placed thoughtfully throughout the text, helping research-

ers visualize changes to the country as they happened.

Notable People in the History of Canada follows the final chapter,

with biographies of men and women who helped define this vast

country. The list of 41 comprises politicians, journalists, explorers,

Introduction xvii

religious figures, writers, educators, activists and artists and

includes 10 more individuals than the last edition.

The Timeline puts the history of Canada in order, from border

wars to the Olympics to the passing of the French Language

Charter. It includes hundreds of significant events, right up to the

2010 Vancouver Winter Olympics.

Primary Documents is a NEW section of The History of Canada.It

includes carefully selected articles, legislation, letters and excerpts.

Designed to support chapter themes, each document is referenced

in the main text. A separate Table of Contents identifies the 38

diverse documents, with “Prime Minister Harper Announces

Measures to Strengthen Canada’s Arctic Sovereignty” and the

“Joe Canadian Rant” on the list.

The History of Canada includes a Bibliographic E ssay that not only

lists books that would be helpful in further research on Canada, but

is annotated with helpful descriptions and comparisons. These

resources are categorized by topics relevant to Canada’s history,

such as international relations, Canadian women, provinces and

regions, native peoples, Canadian workers and International

relations, Provinces and Regions, Native Peoples, and workers in

Canada. This essay ends with a list of recommended web sites on

Canadian history.

Ending with a detailed Index, The History of Canada is a compellingly

written narrative that weaves the country’s immense geography,

political struggles, and regional, cultural and ethnic diversity into the

complex reality of Canada.

xviii Introduction

THE ROYAL ARMS OF CANADA BY

PROCLAMATION OF KING GEORGE V IN 1921

The Royal Arms of Canada were established by proclamation of

King George V on 21 November, 1921. On the advice of the

Prime Minister of Canada, Her Majesty the Queen approved, on

12 July, 1994, that the arms be augmented with a ribbon bearing

the motto of the Order of Canada, DESIDERANTES MELIOREM

PATRIAM - “They desire a better country”.

This coat of arms was developed by a special committee ap

pointed by Order in Council and is substantially based on a ver

sion of the Royal Arms of the United Kingdom, featuring the

historic arms of England and Scotland. To this were added the

old arms of Royal France and the historic emblem of Ireland, the

harp of Tara, thus honouring many of the founding European

peoples of modern Canada. To mark these arms as Canadian,

the three red maple leaves on a field of white were added.

The supporters, and the crest, above the helmet, are also ver

sions of elements of the Royal Arms of the United Kingdom, in-

cluding the lion of England and unicorn of Scotland. The lion

holds the Union Jack and the unicorn, the banner of Royal

France. The crowned lion holding the maple leaf, which is the

The Royal Crest of Canada, has, since 1981, also been the offi

cial symbol of the Governor General of Canada, the Sovereign’s

representative.

At the base of the Royal Arms are the floral emblems of the

founding nations of Canada, the English Rose, the Scottish This-

tle, the French Lily and the Irish Shamrock.

The motto - A MARI USQUE AD MARE - “From sea to sea” - is an

extract from the Latin version of verse 8 of the 72nd Psalm - “He

shall have dominion also from sea to sea, and from the river unto

the ends of the earth.”

THE NATIONAL FLAG

The National Flag of Canada, otherwise known as the Canadian

Flag, was approved by Parliament and proclaimed by Her Maj-

esty Queen Elizabeth II to be in force as of February 15, 1965. It

is described as a red flag of the proportions two by length and

one by width, containing in its centre a white square the width of

the flag, bearing a single red maple leaf. Red and white are the

official colours of Canada, as approved by the proclamation of

King George V appointing Arms for Canada in 1921. The Flag is

flown on land at all federal government buildings, airports, and

military bases within and outside Canada, and may appropriately

be flown or displayed by individuals and organizations. The Flag

is the proper national colours for all Canadian ships and boats;

and it is the flag flown on Canadian Naval vessels.

The Flag is flown daily from sunrise to sunset. However, it is not

contrary to etiquette to have the Flag flying at night. No flag,

banner or pennant should be flown or displayed above the Ca-

nadian Flag. Flags flown together should be approximately the

same size and flown from separate staffs at the same height.

When flown on a speaker’’ platform, it should be to the right of

the speaker. When used in the body of an auditorium; it should

be to the right of the audience. When two or more than three

flags are flown together, the Flag should be on the left as seen

by spectators in front of the flags. When three flags are flown to-

gether, the Canadian Flag should occupy the central position.

A complete set of rules for flying the Canadian Flag can be ob-

tained from the Department of Canadian Heritage.

THE ROYAL UNION FLAG

The Royal Union Flag, generally known as the Union Jack, was

approved by Parliament on December 18, 1964 for continued use

in Canada as a symbol of Canada’s membership in the Common

wealth of Nations and of her allegiance to the Crown. It will, where

physical arrangements make it possible, be flown along with the

National Flag at federal buildings, airports, and military bases and

establishments within Canada on the date of the official obser-

vance of the Queen’s birthday, the Anniversary of the Statute of

Westminster (December 11th), Commonwealth Day (second Mon-

day in March), and on the occasions of Royal Visits and certain

Commonwealth gatherings in Canada.

Flags and Emblems xix

CANADIAN ARMED FORCES BADGE

The Canadian Armed Forces Badge was sanctioned by Her Maj-

esty Queen Elizabeth II in May 1967. The description is as follows:

Within a wreath of ten stylized maple leaves Red, a cartouche

medium Blue edge Gold, charged with a foul anchor Gold, sur-

mounted by Crusader’s Swords in Saltire Silver and blue, pom

melled and hilted Gold; and in front an eagle volant affront head

to the sinister Gold, the whole ensigned with a Royal Crown

proper.

The Canadian Forces Badge replaces the badges of the Royal

Canadian Navy, the Canadian Army, and the Royal Canadian Air

Force.

FLAG OF THE GOVERNOR GENERAL

The Governor General’s standard is a blue flag with the crest of

the Arms of Canada in its centre. A symbol of the Sovereignty of

Canada, the crest is made of a gold lion passant imperially

crowned, on a wreath of the official colours of Canada, holding in

its right paw a red maple leaf. The standard was approved by

Her Majesty The Queen on February 23, 1981. The Governor

General’s personal standard flies whenever the incumbent is in

residence, and takes precedence over all other flags in Canada,

except The Queen’s.

QUEEN’S PERSONAL CANADIAN FLAG

In 1962, Her Majesty The Queen adopted a personal flag specif

ically for use in Canada. The design comprises the Arms of Can

ada with The Queen’s own device in the centre. The device - the

initial “E” surmounted by the St. Edward’s Crown within a chaplet

of roses - is gold on a blue background.

When the Queen is in Canada, this flag is flown, day and night,

at any building in which She is in residence. Generally, the flag is

also flown behind the saluting base when She conducts troop in

spections, on all vehicles in which She travels, and on Her Maj

esty’s Canadian ships (HMCS) when the Queen is aboard.

xx Flags and Emblems

ALBERTA

The Arms of the Province of Alberta were granted by Royal War

rant on May 30, 1907. On July 30th, 1980, the Arms were aug

mented as follows: Crest: Upon a Helm with a Wreath Argent and

Gules a Beaver couchant upholding on its back the Royal Crown

both proper; Supporters: On the dexter side a Lion Or armed and

langued Gules and on the sinister side a Pronghorn Antelope

(Antilocapra americana) proper; the Compartment comprising a

grassy mount with the Floral Emblem of the said Province of Al

berta the Wild Rose (Rosa acicularis) growing therefrom proper;

Motto: FORTIS ET LIBER (Strong and Free) to be borne and used

together with the Arms upon Seals, Shields, Banners, Flags or

otherwise according to the Laws of Arms.

In 1958, the Government of Alberta authorized the design and

use of an official flag. A flag bearing the Armorial Ensign on a

royal ultramarine blue background was adopted and the Flag Act

proclaimed June 1st 1968. Proportions of the flag are two by

length and one by width with the Armorial Ensign seven-elev-

enths of the width of the flag carried in the centre. The flag may

be used by citizens of the Province and others in a manner befit

ting its dignity and importance but no other banner or flag that in-

cludes the Armorial Ensign may be assumed or used.

Floral Emblem: Wild Rose (Rosa Acicularis). Chosen in the Flo

ral Emblem Act of 1930.

Provincial Bird: Great horned owl (budo virginianus). Adopted

May 3, 1977.

BRITISH COLUMBIA

The shield of British Columbia was granted by Royal Warrant on

March 31, 1906. On October 15th, 1987, the shield was aug-

mented by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II. The crest and sup-

porters have become part of the provincial Arms through usage.

The heraldic description is as follows: Crest: Upon a Helm with a

Wreath Argent and Gules the Royal Crest of general purpose of

Our Royal Predecessor Queen Victoria differenced for Us and

Our Successors in right of British Columbia with the Lion thereof

garlanded about the neck with the Provincial Flower that is to

say the Pacific Dogwood (Cornus nuttallii) with leaves all proper

Mantled Gules doubled Argent; Supporters: On the dexter side a

Wapiti Stag (Cervus canadensis) proper and on the sinister side

a Bighorn Sheep Ram (Oviscanadensis) Argent armed and

unguled Or; Compartment: Beneath the Shield a Scroll entwined

with Pacific Dogwood flowers slipped and leaved proper in-

scribed with the Motto assigned by the said Warrant of Our

Royal Predecessor King Edward VII that is to say SPLENDOR

SINE OCCASU, (splendour without diminishment).

The flag of British Columbia was authorized by an Or-

der-in-Council of June 27, 1960. The Union Jack symbolizes the

province’s origins as a British colony, and the crown at its centre

represents the sovereign power linking the nations of the Com

monwealth. The sun sets over the Pacific Ocean. The original

design of the flag was located in 1960 by Hon. W.A.C. Bennett

at the College of Arms in London.

Floral emblem: Pacific Dogwood (Cornus Nuttallii, Audubon).

Adopted under the Floral Emblem Act, 1956.

Provincial Bird: Steller’s jay. Adopted November 19, 1987.

Flags and Emblems xxi

MANITOBA

The Arms of the Province of Manitoba were granted by Royal War

rant on May 10, 1905, augmented by warrant of the Governor Gen

eral on October 23, 1992. The description is as follows: above the

familiar shield of 1905 is a helmet and mantling; above the helmet is

the Crest, including the beaver holding a prairie crocus, the prov

ince’s floral emblem. On the beaver’s back is the royal crown. The

left supporter is a unicorn wearing a collar bearing a decorative

frieze of maple leaves, the collar representing Manitoba’s position as

Canada’s “keystone” province. Hanging from the collar is a wheel of

a Red River cart. The right supporter is a white horse, and its collar

of bead and bone honours First Peoples. The supporters and the

shield rest on a compartment representing the province’s rivers and

lakes, grain fields and forests, composed of the provincial tree, the

white spruce, and seven prairie crocuses. At the base is a Latin

translation of the phrase “Glorious and Free.”

The flag of the Province of Manitoba was adopted under The Pro

vincial Flag Act, assented to May 11, 1965, and proclaimed into

force on May 12, 1966. It incorporates parts of the Royal Armorial

Ensigns, namely the Union and Red Ensign; the badge in the fly of

the flag is the shield of the arms of the province.

Description: A flag of the proportions two by length and one by

width with the Union Jack occupying the upper quarter next the

staff and with the shield of the armorial bearings of the province

centered in the half farthest from the staff.

Floral Emblem: Pasque Flower, known locally as Prairie Crocus

(Anemone Patens). Adopted 1906.

Provincial Bird: Great gray owl. Adopted July 16, 1987.

NEW BRUNSWICK

The Arms of New Brunswick were granted by Royal Warrant on

May 26, 1868. The motto SPEM REDUXIT (hope restored) was

added by Order-in-Council in 1966. The description is as follows:

The upper third of the shield is red and features a gold lion, symbol-

izing New Brunswick’s ties to Britain. The lion is also found in the

arms of the Duchy of Brunswick in Germany, the ancestral home of

King George III. The lower part of the shield displays an ancient gal-

ley with oars in action. It could be interpreted as a reference to the

importance of both shipbuilding and seafaring to New Brunswick in

those days. It is also based on the design of the province’s original

great seal which featured a sailing ship on water. The shield is sup-

ported by two white-tailed deer wearing collars of Indian wampum.

From one is suspended the Royal Union Flag (the Union Jack), from

the other the fleur-de-lis to indicate the province’s British and French

background. The crest consists of an Atlantic Salmon leaping from a

coronet of gold maple leaves and bearing St. Edward’s Crown on its

back. The base, or compartment, is a grassy mound with

fiddleheads as well as purple violets, the provincial floral emblem.

The motto “Spem Reduxit” is taken from the first great seal of the

province.

The flag of New Brunswick, adopted by Proclamation on Febru

ary 24, 1965, is based on the Arms of the province. The chief

and charge occupy the upper one-third of the flag, and the re

mainder of the armorial bearings occupy the lower two-thirds.

The proportion is four by length and two and one half by width.

Floral Emblem: Purple Violet (Viola Cuculata). Adopted by Or

der-in-Council, December 1, 1936, at the request of the New

Brunswick Women’s Institute.

Provincial Bird: Black-capped chickadee. Adopted August

1983.

xxii Flags and Emblems