Preiser W., Smith K.H. Universal Design Handbook
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FIGURE 15.5 The Pinerolo renovation project focused on public housing buildings on the site of the old munici-
pal slaughterhouse close to the city center.
Long description: The image shows the new two-story residential building for older people and young couples.
On the ground floor there are smaller apartments for single persons, while on the first floor there are bigger ones
for couples. On the first floor a small living room faces the courtyard and the park, where residents can socialize
and converse during the winter months.
FIGURE 15.6 The service center is devoted to older people, located close to the new residential building.
Long description: The image shows the community meeting room in the service center, which is devoted to older
residents of the building, but is also open to older residents of the neighborhood. The room is located on the first floor
of the building and has wooden walls, a chimney, and a cooking area in order to convey the concept of a homelike
environment.
15.6
ACCESSIBLE DESIGN IN ITALY 15.7
15.4 OUTDOOR ENVIRONMENTS AND MOBILITY
In the early 1990s, new regulations were introduced to try to improve the usability, comfort, and
safety of outdoor public spaces that included pedestrian pathways, squares, parking, urban parks,
and natural and archaeological sites. Public spaces, including new construction, rehabilitated areas,
and those areas intended for temporary use, had to comply with these new regulations.
∗
Accessible Venice
Venice is seen as one great architectural barrier with 100 islands connected by about 420 bridges. Thanks
to public waterborne transport and the other initiatives implemented by the Venice City Council, almost
70 percent of the city center is accessible to people with impaired mobility. The Agency for Promoting
Tourism in Venice distributes maps of the city showing the most accessible pathways. Yellow map areas
are reachable by persons with disabilities by crossing only bridges with platform stair lifts. Different
areas of the city can be visited by using accessible boats, which have at least one place for a person
using a wheelchair. Ferry stops are accessible, but some of the ramps are quite steep.
In 2008, during the Biennale Exhibition, a provisional ramp was installed at the bridge “Ponte Della
Veneto Marina,” linking the “Gardens” with the “Arsenal,” where the Biennale was held. Twelve ramps
were installed on the bridges along the Venice Marathon route. The project exemplified that “In Venice,
barriers are overcome by running” (see Fig. 15.7).
FIGURE 15.7 In recent years the municipality of Venice, Italy, has been engaged in an initia-
tive to install mobile ramps on existing bridges.
Long description: The image shows one solution to making accessible one of the bridges in the
historical center. The solution consists of a movable ramp with several smaller segments, which are
placed on the steps and are located next to one side of the bridge. Accessibility is improved not only
for wheelchair users but also for people who are carrying heavy loads, such as luggage, as well as
parents with strollers.
∗
The regulations cover the following elements: pathways and pedestrian areas; bus stops; public parking; green spaces and
recreational areas; street furniture; and streets with limited circulation.
15.8 INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
The Constitution Bridge
The Costituzione Bridge opened in September 2008. It deserves more coverage than a chapter, because
of the length of time it took to complete and the debates that started during its design. They continued
throughout construction and are still going on today. It is the fourth bridge that crosses the Canale
Grande, linking the railway station, car parking, and bus stations on one side and the historical and
pedestrian center on the other side. Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava completed the preliminary
design in 1997, and the final design was completed in 2001. Construction began the following year.
As the project plans started to circulate among architects, engineers, and associations of persons
with disabilities, the design analysis immediately showed the lack of attention that was paid to Italian
accessibility laws. A petition started, but authorities ignored it. International dissent resulted in a
project review meeting of the mayor and a group of representative architects, engineers, and persons
with disabilities.
∗
This meeting resulted in commissioning another firm to design an attached mobility
system that would be able to transport people with reduced mobility across the bridge. This mobility
system is a cable car, called Ovovia, and it is designed to run on one side of the bridge. The time for
the Ovovia to cross the span of the bridge is longer than if one were to use a boat. As of this writing,
the bridge is open, but the Ovovia has not been installed. Poor communication has created many ver-
sions of the design and installation. Each player of this complex project has his or her own version of
the story, some of which have appeared in newspapers, resulting in more than 1000 articles published
so far. The bridge and Ovovia construction elicit at least three different responses from
• Those who think that the bridge is not fully accessible, but at the same time feel that complaints
are excessive
• Those who think that the bridge is not accessible and that authorities are guilty of having opened
it before the installation of the Ovovia
• Those who think that Ovovia installation is not very useful, because it takes too much time to cross
the bridge
There are also many opinions that overlap these three groups. Surely, after the Ovovia opening
other comments and complaints will be made. The total cost of construction was around 12.3 million
euros, including 1 million euros for the Ovovia. Opinions about the design of the bridge also vary.
Almost all people visiting it have stated that its shape is breathtaking, but that it is overwhelming
in scale. Many complaints are made about its difficulty and hazardous glass steps, the variability in
height and depth, and the slippery surfaces.
†
Thus, despite the laws regarding accessibility, aesthet-
ics sometimes play a more important role in the design decision-making process, thereby creating
situations that may have no practical solutions.
15.5 DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR INFRASTRUCTURE
AND TRANSPORT
Like other European countries, Italy has developed design principles based on those established in
1997 by the European Commission for safe and sustainable mobility. Local public administrations
must aim their plans and programs at achieving infrastructure and transport goals, while attending to
the safe and sustainable standards set by the commission.
Public rail transport, rather than the air transport, was selected for this discussion for two reasons.
First, in Italy, trains are used more frequently than airlines for domestic travel. Second, airports and
air networks are generally more accessible than railways.
In railway stations across Italy, information and assistance for people with disabilities are provided
by Assistance Centers that are located in each station in Sale Blu (Blue Rooms). Some services include
∗
Among them, Shirley Confino Rehder, AIA, United States, also wrote about it as a case study (Confino Rehder, 2004).
†
For further information, see the newsletter of the municipality of Venice on the website www2.comune.venezia.it/letturagevolata/
newsletter and see Russo’s paper (Russo, 2007).
ACCESSIBLE DESIGN IN ITALY 15.9
train information, seat booking, wheelchairs, escort from/to the station entrances/exits to the train, to
other railway connections, or to lifts with platform elevators and porter service. By calling in advance,
the traveler with a disability can have services arranged to meet the individual requirements. On each of
the 260 major trains, there are cars with facilities for two passengers using wheelchairs, plus two com-
panions. These cars are equipped with an accessible toilet, a seat with a large window, a table, a grab
bar, and a call button. With the new organization of the railway system, two efforts were undertaken to
properly renovate major stations: Grandi Stazioni, which is aimed at improving railway stations in major
cities,
∗
and Cento Stazioni, which is devoted to the renewal of stations in medium-sized cities.
†
In addition to the 2150 Italian medium- and smaller-sized railway stations, such as the Cento
Stazioni office, the Italian Railway built additional amenities for accessibility, allocating a budget of
15 million euros per year.
‡
The projects that are built follow the guidelines prepared by the Italian
railways company RFI (RFI, 2002), which cover
1. The square outside the station, included parking areas, bus and taxi stops, as well as pedestrian
pathways
2. The railway station, its entrances and main lobby and services, such as ticket offices, luggage
storage, information centers, waiting rooms, and toilets
3. The vertical connectors, such as moving and fixed stairs, ramps, lifts, and lift platforms
4. The gates, platforms, pathways, waiting areas, and elevators to enter trains
5. The specifications of signage, public telephones, and ticket machines
6. The finishes of surfaces, detailing, and plants installed in the stations
Roma Termini Station opened before World War II (1939), and was later renovated and enlarged.
Updating the ticket offices and information systems, the provision of automated ticketing, the inclu-
sion of luggage delivery, and the renovation of restrooms enhanced the quality of traveler services.
The underground level, quite deteriorated, was replaced with a new service center consisting of a
wide variety of commercial stores,
§
attracting both travelers and nontravelers. The Roma Termini area
is currently a multipurpose center with public services as well as cultural and fitness centers, shopping,
and bars. This station, like others, features tactile guides to assist people with visual impairments.
15.6 FUTURE TRENDS
The main goal is the acceptance and inclusion of design-for-all principles within urban and building
policies throughout Italy, whether it is for new or renovation programs. This will address the increas-
ing number of older people,
¶
the growing general demand for more appealing living environments,
and the need for more accessible, safe, comfortable, attractive, and functional cities.
The quality of life has improved in the last century, permitting better social services, including
an increase of cultural activities, free time, and recreational travel. Persons with disabilities should
be included. Today, people with visual or motor impairments can participate in any sport or activ-
ity once believed to be beyond reach, such as skiing or horseback riding. To reinforce the goals of
accessibility and inclusive design, new technologies are commonly used in the European Union,
particularly the installation of “smart” technologies in dwellings for the elderly and persons with dis-
abilities. These technologies, known as domotics, are used to support daily activities and can provide
social and health assistance. The inclusion of domotics and assistive technologies adds to a safer and
∗
For further information see www.grandistazioni.it.
†
For further information see www.centostazioni.it.
‡
For further information see www.rfi.it.
§
For further information, see the newsletter of the municipality of Venice on the website www2.comune.venezia.it/lettura-
gevolata/newsletter, and see Russo’s paper (Russo, 2007).
¶
Italy leads all European countries in the percentage of persons aged 65 and over—20.5 percent in 2006—according to
National Statistic Institute ISTAT.
15.10 INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
more secure home environment. Good design specifications can prevent accidents within the home
environment, which very often prove to be debilitating or fatal. These expectations can be achieved
through more conscientiousness design and with the support of politicians and advocates.
Italian policies are now written to work within the guidelines of inclusive design, and they are intend-
ed to meet the growing needs and demands. This approach still requires acceptance at all European and
international levels. ISO’s approach to accessibility (ISO/ TC59/SC16) and CEN-CENELEC Guide 6
(CEN-CENELEC, 2002) make an important contribution toward its ultimate acceptance.
It is recognized that the integration of inclusive design/universal design within the built environment
may require investments that could strain the different and changing economies of Europe. The work
that needs to be done remains a major undertaking.
∗
But it is also an investment in people, their inde-
pendence, and their ability to participate in society. It is an investment for the future. Italy recognizes this
and is working hard to create places in which all people can fully participate and enjoy their lives.
15.7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
CEN-CENELEC Guide 6, Guidelines for Standards Developers to Address the Needs of Older Persons and
Persons with Disabilities, 1st ed., January 2002.
Circolare Ministero Lavori Pubblici, Standards residenziali, n. 425, Jan. 20, 1967.
Confino-Rehder, S., “Improving the Design Process,” CIB Proceedings, Toronto, 2004.
Decreto del Ministero dei Lavori Pubblici, Prescrizioni tecniche necessarie a garantire l’accessibilità,
l’adattabilità e la visibilità negli edifici private e di edilizia residenziale pubblica sovvenzionata e agevolata, ai
fini del superamento e dell’eliminazione delle barriere architettoniche, n. 236, June 14, 1989.
Decreto del Presidente della Repubblica, Regolamento concernente per l’eliminazione delle barriere architet-
toniche negli edifici, spazi e servizi pubblici, n. 503, July 24, 1996.
D’Innocenzo, A., Universal Design: Progettare senza escludere, Controspazio, n. 2, pp. 54–55, 2001.
ISO/TC59/SC16, “Accessibility and Usability of the Built Environment” (under development).
Legge, Disposizioni per favorire il superamento e l’eliminazione delle barriere architettoniche negli edifici
privati, n. 13, Jan. 9, 1989.
Legge Regione Lombardia, n. 6, Feb. 20, 1989.
Ministero Affari Esteri, Comune di Roma, Università degli Studi di Roma La Sapienza, “Percorso pedonale
protetto Trevi-Pantheon,” Progetto Roma, La città del 2000, 1992, pp. 56–57.
Ministero delle Infrastrutture e dei Trasporti, Piemonte Torino Pinerolo Ex Foro Boario, Contratti di quartiere,
Programmi per la riqualificazione di insediamenti urbani degradati, Edizioni Edilizia Popolare, 2001, pp. 44–49.
Missiroli, G., Bagnacavallo: abitazioni per la terza età nell’esperienza di CasaCoopTre, AeA informa, n. 3/4,
2004, pp. 6–10.
RFI, Direzione Movimento Terminali Viaggiatori e Merci (by L. Cirasiello et al.), Linee Guida per la progettazione.
Accessibilità nelle stazioni-Superamento delle barriere architettoniche, and Linee Guida per la progettazione—
Percorsi tattili per disabili visivi (by C. De Vito and M. Gerlini), Marzo 2002.
Russo, D., Venezia, il secondo Ponte dei Sospiri: Calatrava, LiberoReporter, n. 10, Nov. 2007.
15.8 RESOURCES
Municipality of Venice, accessibility press service: http://pressin.comune.venezia.it/
Municipality of Venice: www.comune.venezia.it/flex/cm/pages/ServeBLOB.php/L/IT/IDPagina/589
Railway Italian network: www.rfi.it
Railway station renovation in major cities: www.grandistazioni.it
Railway station renovation in medium-sized cities: www.centostazioni.it
∗
The authors are indebted to Satya Brinks and Shirley Confino-Rehder, wonderful friends and great colleagues, for their
review of the first and second drafts of this chapter, respectively.
CHAPTER 16
PLANNING ACCESSIBILITY IN
THE OLD CITY OF JERUSALEM
Avi Ramot, Yael Danieli-Lahav, and Judith Bendel
16.1 INTRODUCTION
The Old City of Jerusalem has been settled continuously for more than 3000 years. The current struc-
ture including the Old City walls and location of its gates has existed since the early medieval era
(Prawer, 1972; Rubin, 1999). The Old City contains a mixture of old and new construction, archaeol-
ogy, history, people of many different religions, and holy sites. Each of the main monotheist religions
and their denominations has its own holy sites within the Old City walls. The area is characterized
by very dense population, about 35,000 residents (Jerusalem Statistical Yearbook, 2005); in addition
there are about 10 million visitors per year. This chapter discusses the tools and planning processes
of accessibility in the unique and complicated nature of the Old City of Jerusalem, a model for other
historic cities (see Fig. 16.1).
16.2 STRUCTURE AND TOPOGRAPHY
The Old City extends for 871 square meters (Jerusalem Statistical Yearbook, 2005), and is built
on two hills separated by a valley. The Old City was built in a medieval Mediterranean scheme,
based on a former Roman city, not necessarily in accordance with the topography. Two main
streets, the north-south Cardo Maximus and the east-west Decomanus Maximus, divide the Old
City into four quarters, each containing residential block areas, schools, prayer places, etc. (Bahat
and Rubinstein, 1990).
The present design resembles other eastern cities. It is based on residential enclosures, connected
by major streets allowing for free passage among the different parts of the Old City. Dead-end streets
and alleys lead to the residences. The main streets contain the main trade markets, which overflow
to the nearby streets, as well as most of the municipal and religious public buildings. Many of the
residential homes are located on top of the commercial areas. They can be reached only by staircases,
starting from internal dead-end alleys. Therefore, there are no direct passages among residential
areas.
Because the streets are hundreds of years old and surrounded by very high density construction,
their width in general is, at its maximum, 3 m, and often the space available for pedestrians does
not exceed 1.50 m.
Some of the streets are sloped very steeply due to the natural topography. Many of the sloped
streets were built with stairs to accommodate the pedestrians, while minimizing the slope between
16.1
16.2 INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
the staircases. The buildings were built along the streets; therefore the level of the entrances to the
shops or houses correlates to the slope and subdivisions created by the steps.
The seven well-preserved city gates are the only way to connect this area to the New City, outside
the Old City walls. A green area around the walls helps isolate the Old City from the new construc-
tion outside the walls. The decision to have this separation was made in the nineteenth century, and
it is maintained to this day.
16.3 MOBILITY INFRASTRUCTURES
Three mobility systems are currently interconnected.
• The most common is for pedestrians who can use all streets, as long as their physical fitness per-
mits them to use the stairs (see Fig.16.2).
• Carts and cars, built specially to suit the crowded streets, are used for transporting merchandise.
For that purpose, narrow stone ramps were added to enable pushing the carts. These ramps are
fitted to meet the distance between cart wheels (see Fig. 16.3).
• Cars and narrow tractors are relatively new to the Old City. These can be used only in a limited
number of streets. There is no room for a sidewalk in these streets, which are more or less suitable
for the use of cars (see Fig. 16.4).
FIGURE 16.1 Muristan Square, located next to the church of the Holy Sepulcher. The acces-
sible gate to Muristan Square, a busy street of shopping and restaurants, is where merchandise
is displayed on the street outside the shops, as is typical in the Old City.
Long description: This photo shows a semicircular triple-arched gate built of masonry in a
neoclassic style. The threshold is lifted from the street limestone pavement by a 12-cm step
(made to block out vehicles). The entrance was modified to accommodate wheelchair users by
the insertion of a concrete ramp. Beyond the gate, there is a commercial street about 8 m wide,
where a significant amount of merchandise is displayed outdoors. The shops are tourist-oriented,
offering ethnic clothing hanging down from shop marquees, baskets, and artisan work displayed
on the street pavement, and local restaurants with outdoor seating.
PLANNING ACCESSIBILITY IN THE OLD CITY OF JERUSALEM 16.3
FIGURE 16.2 Residential stairway street in the Moslem Quarter. Narrow municipal service
wagons, specially adapted for the narrow stairway streets, are an effective way to provide the
Old City with routine municipal sanitation and maintenance services.
Long description: This photo shows a residential stairway street climbing up the hill. Most of
the rises are up to 14 cm, while the treads differ from 30 to 60 cm. The stairs are grouped by
two to three steps, with landings of about 180 cm in between. The average width of the street
is about 3 m and is paved with limestone tiles. On the rear, the street is blocked by a residential
building, allowing the public an arched path 180 cm wide and 270 cm high. The photo shows a
narrow (100-cm or less) municipal service wagon, which is pulled by a modified small tractor,
driving on the stairway with a man passing by the side of the vehicle.
16.4 THE PROBLEM OF PLANNING UPGRADING
For many years there were no significant renovations done in the Old City. With the urgent need
to improve the quality of life and upgrade the infrastructure for the increasing number of residents
and tourists, a major comprehensive planning project was initiated. This project was designed to
address general concerns, with particular attention to accessibility. A multidisciplinary team was
set up for this purpose and was coordinated by the Jerusalem Development Authority. The team
was composed of representatives of the following concerns, services, and entities: architecture, civil
engineering, electricity, sewage, water, tourism, archaeology, preservation, heritage, emergency ser-
vices, religions, community organizations, and accessibility. Priorities were proposed for each street.
Integration of proposals was the responsibility of the coordinator. The accessibility planning team
was faced with two major dilemmas:
• How to implement the official national guidelines for accessibility in the complex context of the
Old City
• Where to start, since no criteria to prioritize the overall accessibility needs were available
It is important to note that in many countries, including Israel, laws, regulations, and guidelines
for barrier-free design exist in many places. These guidelines, although often similar in nature, vary
from country to country. In many countries, including Israel (Standards Institution of Israel, 1998;
16.4 INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
State of Israel, 2008) and the United States (ADA Accessibility Guidelines, 2002), the standards refer
to minimum requirements. There are many cases in which enforcement of the guidelines is problem-
atic. As a result, there are buildings and environments that do not comply with the requirements.
In Israel, as in the United States, full compliance with the standards is required only for construc-
tion of new buildings as well as alteration of existing buildings. Structural barriers must be removed
from the latter on the condition that this can be easily accomplished. If complying with the standards
is not readily achievable, modification that does not fully comply may be approved on the condition
that it poses no health or safety risk. The regulations do not define what changes would be accom-
plished easily, and what expense is required for a facility to meet its obligation to remove barriers.
The judgment is made on a case-by-case basis by the planner, architect, or engineer of the facility
(ADA Compliance Materials, 1995).
Old cities throughout the world are the ultimate environments for facing difficulties with enforce-
ment of the guidelines. Adaptation of environments and facilities must be undertaken in accordance
with standards required by law, as well as with the goal of meeting the needs of the consumer. At the
same time, access needs and universal design must also relate to heritage; historic and archaeology
needs; preservation as opposed to modernization and progress; tourism; and local citizens’ welfare,
different religions’ needs, etc.
There are guidelines, but no official audit tools to assess compliance. The first step in addressing
the demand to provide accessibility is to share consistent, reliable, and objective access information.
FIGURE 16.3 Semicommercial street in the Christian Quarter. A street constructed as a
stairway is paved by limestone tiles, and a handrail is mounted on the left façade wall. Narrow
stone ramps are anchored into the stairway for scooter and wheelchair users as well as pushers
of carts and wagons.
Long description: This photo shows a steep street that is approximately 3 m wide, with shops
on the right and a continuous stone wall on the left. Typical to the Old City of Jerusalem, the
street is paved with limestone tiles and is made as a stairway, which is constructed of wide treads
(60 to 100 cm) with short risers (10 to 14 cm). Larger treads allow entrances to shops. Steep
and narrow stone ramps are anchored into the stairway on a line. These ramps serve wheelchair
or scooter users as well as carts and wagons. A handrail fixed to the wall assists the pedestrians
who prefer to use the stairway beside the ramps.
PLANNING ACCESSIBILITY IN THE OLD CITY OF JERUSALEM 16.5
To provide such information, there is need for a valid and reliable accessibility evaluation tool
(Dijkers, 2003).
The existing data collection tools are not official audit tools to assess compliance and are not
supported by data analysis tools. Several authors focused on identifying instruments that measure
the built environment. For example, The Enabler (Steinfeld and Danford, 1997) assesses private
homes. The basic premise of the work is that accessibility problems arise in the relationship between
the individual and the environment. Scoring is dependent on judgments and, therefore, training in
administering the tool is recommended to ensure interrater reliability (The Enabler, 2005).
Other tools attempt to assess hazards that persons with physical or cognitive deficits face in
their homes, with the ultimate purpose of predicting and preventing falls and other injuries. Most of
these tools develop a set of items each of which constitutes a risk, e.g., loose rugs, dangling power
cords, lack of grab bars, etc.; assign points for presence or absence; and add up to obtain a residence
hazard score (Clemson et al., 1999). A decision support system tool for evaluating accessibility of
various facilities was created in Israel using mathematical equations based on the specifications of
the official guideline requirements (Bendel, 2006).
Accessibility checklists are most commonly used to assess the degree to which both existing and
new buildings satisfy legal criteria for access. The purpose of the Americans with Disabilities Act
(ADA) checklist for Readily Achievable Barrier Removal (ADA Compliance Materials, 1995), e.g.,
is to “help you identify accessibility problems and solutions in existing facilities, in order to meet
your obligations under the ADA” (ADA Compliance Materials, 1995, p. 2). This tool checks for
compliance with the ADA Accessibility Guidelines (2002) and has been widely used in the United
States since the passage of the ADA.
FIGURE 16.4 New Gate streets in the Christian Quarter. A street leading to the “New Gate”
is one of very few where private cars can enter the area within the walls of the Old City. Cars are
parked very close to the building walls between low stone car barriers.
Long description: This photo shows a level street, about 500 cm wide, paved with limestone
tiles. The left façade is occupied by small shops, and the right façade is a mixture of buildings
and a wall of a public yard. Low stone car barriers define a one-way dual-purpose driving and
walking route 320 cm wide. The distance from one barrier to the next is not constant. In front
of shop entrances, the barriers are grouped to block car parking, while next to blank walls the
distance between the stone barriers accommodates car parking.