Preiser W., Smith K.H. Universal Design Handbook
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11.6 INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
designated as mandatory, must be abided by; or otherwise, building permits would not be issued. The
law also allowed individual local governments to introduce stricter requirements.
In 2006, the two laws, i.e., the Accessible and Usable Building Law and the Accessible Public
Transportation Law, were combined to become the Accessible Built Environment Law. It now covers
almost all public buildings and places.
11.7 HOUSING POLICY FOR A NEW ERA
In 1999, the Housing Quality Assurance Law was introduced that was intended to ensure that the qual-
ity of housing was reasonable enough for the dwellers. This also introduced a housing performance
assessment system. Although to be included in the system was voluntary, many multifamily housing
projects have been certified by the system partly due to the scandalous structural integrity fraud.
If the dwelling unit is to be certified, all 10 performance categories must be addressed, not just
some of them. The categories are structural integrity, fire safety, durability, ease of maintenance,
thermal performance, air quality, lighting and visual environment, sound insulation, design for aging,
and crime prevention.
Since a recent survey on the effectiveness of the Dwelling Design Guidelines for the Aging
Society suggested that they have been considered satisfactory by the residents (Kose and Tanaka,
1998; Kose et al., 1999), their inclusion has been highly appreciated.
FIGURE 11.3 The water channel is almost invisible in a newer design. The water channel at
the bathroom door is almost eliminated in a more recent design, which was installed in 2007
as a bathroom unit for public rental housing. In repeated experiments and practical experiences
regarding water overflow, problems were solved with more sophisticated designs.
Long description: This photo shows a bathroom where the water channel at the bathroom door
is almost eliminated in a more recent design, which was installed in 2007 as a bathroom unit
for public rental housing. In repeated experiments and practical experiences regarding water
overflow, problems were solved with more sophisticated designs.
THE IMPACT OF AGING ON JAPANESE ACCESSIBILITY STANDARDS 11.7
The nonobligatory nature is likely to lead to a situation in which better-quality housing providers
would apply for the performance rating, and the expectation is that the general quality of dwellings
will be improved in due course.
A law on Securing Housing for Seniors was introduced in 2001. The primary goal was to invite
the private rental sector into the housing market with economic incentives. The introduction of a new
law for securing housing for seniors was necessary because it is now impossible to accommodate all
the seniors who wish to rent a public sector housing unit. The Design Guidelines of Dwellings for the
Aged, a revised version of the Design Guidelines of 1995, now became more formal than before. The
law introduced several economic benefits for private rental housing, from subsidies for construction,
to ensuring rents of seniors. This was a change of emphasis from direct housing provisions by the
local governments to encouraging, through incentives, private sector development.
Regarding the official dwelling design guidelines for the aged, the content is quite similar to the
previous design guidelines for the aging society, which means that the contents of the guidelines are
acceptable as the basis for all dwellings.
Whether this works effectively or not is yet to be seen because constructing new higher-quality
dwelling units targeted toward seniors could involve a large private sector investment. Existing
dwelling units are generally of poor quality, and normally it would be very expensive to modify
them. For private banks that provide housing mortgages, higher-quality dwellings are favored, which
will help accelerate the trend toward design for aging.
11.8 THE GROWING NEED TO ADAPT EXISTING BUILDINGS
Among the aforementioned problems, the lack of distinction between new and existing buildings
still seems to cause the most serious difficulties in real-world situations. The basic idea behind the
Japanese Building Standard Law appears to assume a 30- to 60-year life span for buildings, depend-
ing on the type of construction. The Japanese assumed that timber structures would be replaced in
30 years and reinforced concrete or steel structures in 60 years. The thinking was that if change in
society was slow, the country could perhaps wait until every building was replaced by a new one.
However, as noted earlier, the growth of the aging population is much faster than had been antici-
pated. Japanese society cannot wait that long, nor can physical barriers be allowed to remain. It is
preferable to improve existing buildings, even if more-demanding accessibility requirements cannot
be met. To attain this intermediate goal, it is necessary to introduce a second, lower level of require-
ments applicable to alterations of existing buildings. The idea of two levels of requirements is com-
mon in countries where the expected life of buildings is long. Unfortunately, the concept is not part of
the law yet. The new accessibility law asks that the buildings abide by the accessibility requirements
if they undergo major remodeling equal to new construction. The government has insisted that the law
define just the minimum level of requirements. In reality, however, not only clients but also architects
and designers tend to think that current requirements are at an optimum level.
The need for adaptation to meet requirements of aging is common to dwellings (Lanspery and Hyde,
1996). The difficulty was more pronounced because of the mismatch between the capabilities of the resi-
dents and the design features of the dwellings. A solution that worked in one house would not necessarily
be effective in another. There have been attempts by local governments to assist in modifying dwellings,
but their effectiveness has been limited. Even the new Care for the Aged Insurance System does not appear
to support home modification; the emphasis was more on providing services through human resources
than on the initial improvement of the physical environment. This was not a fair policy measure, because it
benefited only a small minority of the population, especially those who owned their own homes.
The most difficult part of the introduction of universal design concepts was how to persuade the
general public to accept them. An examination of the Japanese accomplishments reveals that it is
best when they are introduced into the market with economic incentives. Perhaps the best policy is
to combine them with legal enforcement.
Kose (2000) stressed that good design is what is needed by the users, and that there are six essen-
tial requirements—safety, accessibility, usability, affordability, sustainability, and aesthetics—to
11.8 INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
“good design.” Some of the requirements are enforceable, but not all. Kose stressed that the first
four requirements must be met to qualify for being called universal design, but perhaps affordability
is most crucial.
11.9 THE CURRENT SITUATION REGARDING
DWELLING PROVISION
As stated earlier, the official design guidelines of dwellings for the aged and the Housing Loan
Corporation (HLC) housing mortgage requirements emphasized three requirements: floor without
unnecessary level change, support for handrail installation, and width of crucial space dimensions.
The Ministry of Construction wished to have 20 percent of all dwelling units in 2015 be newly
built with at least such accessible and usable features and an extra 20 percent adapted to include these
features. However, the most recent result of the Housing and Land Survey conducted in 2003 revealed
the following picture: Among the entire housing stock, only 5.4 percent satisfy the three requirements,
and even among those units where seniors reside, only 6.7 percent satisfy the same requirements. The
situation is worse with rental units compared to owner-occupied units. More recent data, surveyed in
autumn 2008, are to be released soon.
With an inclination toward laissez faire practices, the government diminished and changed the
role of the Housing Loan Corporation, to be named the Japan Housing Finance Agency. With only a
small role left as to housing mortgages, the primary role of the agency is to subsidize housing modi-
fications for earthquake resistance and age-friendly design. Unfortunately, the number of dwellings
that qualify is very small, far below government expectations.
11.10 CONCLUSIONS
There are several difficulties Japan faces in order to make dwellings accessible and usable dur-
ing residents’ later years. The Basic Act for Housing, enacted in 2006, lacks effective authority to
enable the government to tackle and solve the problems. Generally, the act asks local governments to
establish their own policy measures and priorities, yet under the current economic situation, imple-
mentation has come to a halt. It remains to be seen whether various tax incentives for new housing
construction and adaptation can reverse the trend.
11.11 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kose, S., “Aging Population and the Impact on Buildings,” Kenchiku-Gijutsu, 427:155–165, 1987 (in Japanese).
———, “Capability of the Elderly and Their Accident Experiences: Implication to Design of Safer, Easier-to-
Use Dwellings,” Saigai-no-Kenkyu (Research on Disasters), 22:128–145, 1991 (in Japanese).
———, Barrier-Free Design in Japan, Building Design for Handicapped and Aged Persons, Council on Tall
Buildings and Urban Habitat, Tokyo, Japan: McGraw-Hill, 1992a, pp. 15–26.
———, “Daily Living Capabilities of the Elderly and Their Accident Experiences: Implication to Design of
Safer, Easier-to-Use Dwellings,” Equitable and Sustainable Environments, EDRA 23 Proceedings, Edmond,
Okla: Environmental Design Research Association, 1992b, pp. 158–166.
———, “Recent Trends of Barrier-Free Building Ordinances and the Japanese Building Standard Law,” Fukushi-
Rodo, 59: 12–23, 1993 (in Japanese).
———, “Ageing vs. Housing: Potential of Information Technology in the Japanese Context,” Potential of
Information Technology for Solving Housing Problems of Aged People, Proceedings of an International
Workshop, Tsukuba, Japan: Building Research Institute, 1994, pp. 1–5.
———, “Possibilities for Change toward Universal Design: Japanese Housing Policy for Seniors at the
Crossroads,” Journal of Aging and Social Policy, 8(2&3):161–176, 1996.
THE IMPACT OF AGING ON JAPANESE ACCESSIBILITY STANDARDS 11.9
———, “Dwelling Design Guidelines for Accessibility in the Aging Society: A New Era in Japan?” in Handbook
of Japan-U.S. Environment Behavior Research: Toward a Transactional Approach, New York: Plenum, 1997,
pp. 25–42.
———, “From Barrier-Free to Universal Design: An International Perspective,” Assistive Technology, 10(1):
44–50, 1998.
——— (ed.), Universal Design: An International Workshop, Tsukuba, Japan: Building Research Institute, 1999.
———, “Universal Design for the Aging,” Encyclopedia of Ergonomics and Human Factors, London: Taylor &
Francis, 2000 (revised 2006).
———, “Universal Design of Dwellings: Who Are the Assumed Residents?” Gerontechnology, 5(3):170–173, 2006.
———, “Reconsidering Universal Design of Dwellings,” The 2nd International Conference for Universal Design
in Kyoto 2006 Proceedings, Tokyo: International Association for Universal Design, 2007, pp. 365–371.
———, “Housing for an Ageing Society: Adapting Housing Design toward Universality Is the Minimum
Requirement for Inclusion,” Aging, Disability and Independence: Selected Papers from the 4th International
Conference on Aging, Disability and Independence, Gainesville, Fla.: University of Florida, 2008, pp. 19–39.
——— and M. Nakaohji, “Housing the Aged: Past, Present, and Future; Policy Development by the Ministry of
Construction of Japan,” The Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, 8(4):296–306, 1991.
———, A. Ohta, Y. Tanaka, and K. Watanabe, “Examination of Design Effectiveness of Special Housing for the
Aged: Is Japanese ‘Silver-Housing’ a Success?” IAPS12 Proceedings, vol. 3, Thessaloniki, Greece: University
of Thessaloniki, 1992, pp. 161–166.
——— and Y. Tanaka, “The New Design Guidelines for Dwellings for the Ageing Society: How Are They
Accepted by the Residents?” People, Places and Public Policy—EDRA29 Proceedings, Edmond, Okla.:
Environmental Design Research Association, 1998, pp. 53–56.
———, I. Kumano, and A. Matsuzaki, “How Far Has the Design of Dwellings Improved in These Ten Years?
Comparison of Two Groups of Houses from the Viewpoint of Design for the Aging Society.” Power of Imagination—
EDRA30 Proceedings, Edmond, Okla.: Environmental Design Research Association, 1999, pp. 127–132.
Lanspery, S., and J. Hyde (eds.), Staying Put: Adapting Places Instead of the People, Amityville, N.Y.: Baywood
Publishers, 1996.
Ministry of Construction, Housing and Infrastructure Improvement Aimed at the Promotion of Healthy and
Fulfilling Lifestyles: Guidelines for the Creation of Living Space Based on Citizen Welfare, Tokyo, Japan, 1994.
National Institute of Population Problems, Population Estimate in August 1986, Tokyo, Japan, 1986.
National Institute of Population and Social Security Research, Population Estimate in January 1997, Tokyo,
Japan, 1997.
Nomura, K., S. Kose, and Y. Tanaka (eds.) Housing Rehabilitation Manual for the Ageing Residents, Tokyo:
Japan Housing Reform Center, 1990 (in Japanese; revised in 1998).
11.12 RESOURCES
Government of Japan, Building Standard Law, 1950.
Government of Japan, Accessible and Usable Buildings Law, 1994.
Government of Japan, Housing Quality Assurance Law, 1999.
Government of Japan, Accessible and Usable Transportation Law, 2000.
Government of Japan, Securing Housing for Seniors Law, 2001.
Government of Japan, Accessible and Usable Buildings Law, Amendment 2002.
Government of Japan, Basic Act for Housing, 2006.
Government of Japan, Accessible and Usable Built Environment Law, 2006.
U.S. Government, Fair Housing Amendment Act, 1988.
U.S. Government, Americans with Disabilities Act, 1990.
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CHAPTER 12
THE EVOLUTION OF DESIGN FOR
ALL IN PUBLIC BUILDINGS AND
TRANSPORTATION IN FRANCE
Louis-Pierre Grosbois
12.1 INTRODUCTION
The concept of universal design is, in fact, an extension of commoditas, Vitruvius’ ancient concept of the
importance of use. Vitruvius, an architect of Roman antiquity, specified that commoditas was the third ele-
ment of architectural creation, along with beauty and firmness (or voluptas and firmitas). At the end of the
second millennium, the objective Vitruvius defined 2000 years ago, “to lay out the building so ingeniously
that nothing could hinder its use,” was reinstated as consequence of a new concept: “Design for all.”
Nowadays, to remain relevant, commoditas design must take into account the variety of physi-
cal, sensorial, and mental abilities of the population. It used to be that a large part of the population
was excluded from design. These people were reintegrated into social life when the diversity of uses
became one of the purposes of architectural design. This evolution has changed design attitudes and
increased the role that diversity plays in aesthetic, technical, and economic choices. “Architecture is
both an art and a science sustained by human necessities” (Grosbois, 2008).
The first French law concerning the accessibility of new construction was enacted in 1975. Thirty
years later, in 2005, a new law came into effect, built upon the work of the World Health Organization
to redefine disability. The new law included both new construction and existing structures, and it
broadened the concept of disability beyond mobility. Moreover, the 2005 law was consistent with
other European regulations in the setting of objectives, time frames, and scope. Described below is a
process of evaluating how this change in mind-set is evident in French society. Two case studies, the
Grenoble Tram System and the Grande Galérie of the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle, are presented.
12.2 CRITERIA FOR ANALYSIS
In 1998, a research project entitled “Habiter une ville accessible—Des usages à la conception” was
carried out on behalf of the Ministère de l’Equipement et du Logement by a multidisciplinary team
comprised of architects and sociologist (Grobois et al., 1992). The study defined the nature of prob-
lems encountered in design for all and identified seven key points:
• Language. What are the attitudes in play, and how did they develop? What mental blocks can
occur, and how can one remove them when carrying out a project? All the vocabularies in use must
be analyzed, as they reveal attitudes.
12.1
12.2 INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES
• Legal requirements. To which legislative framework does each project belong, considering that
projects are developed at different periods and that legislation evolves in time? Has the law
been respected strictly?
• Advocacy. How can community associations defending people with disabilities influence deci-
sions toward antisegregation policies during the course of urban planning? Different situations
can be compared to see how groups can influence planning and how they evolve toward acces-
sibility for all.
• Planning. This is the decisive phase when the criteria of accessibility for all are integrated
into designers’ specifications. How far can intentions and facts be extended, considering that
specifications enable results to satisfy needs and assess the project manager’s will?
• Technical traditions. Once the obstacles of attitudes have been overcome, obstacles raised by
technical choices have to be dealt with. It is more pragmatic to use well-known techniques than
to search for lesser-known alternatives.
• Accessibility follow-through. When strong intentions are expressed at the beginning of a proj-
ect, it is necessary to ensure that a good accessibility level is realized and maintained.
• Communications. A breakthrough in design for all amounts to nothing if constituents do not know
about it. Attitudes evolve mainly through examples. Broad communication and dissemination is
essential.
These seven points were used to analyze the Grenoble tram system and the Grande Galérie of the
Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle discussed below.
12.3 GRENOBLE TRAM SYSTEM, 1978–1988
Grenoble is a city of 400,000 inhabitants surrounded by mountains. The city spread considerably at
the end of the 1970s. Car traffic then became saturated, and bus lines did not extend beyond the town
center, so that a new mass transit network became necessary. Considering the nature of the subsoil,
only tramways could be used. They were to be accessible to the entire population. Planned in 1983,
after a popular referendum, the first Transport de l’Agglomération de Grenoble (TAG) line, which
stretched nearly 9 kilometers (5.4 miles), opened in 1987. A second 6-kilometer (3.6-mile) line was
completed in 1990, and a third one is now complete.
Language
In addition to the town’s intentions to “question its development and the alterations to its infra-
structure . . . symbols of massive changes,” the language used in documents about the TAG con-
sisted of mass transit terminology, i.e., passengers, clients, and users. Accessibility is the generic
term used most frequently with regard to people with disabilities—“accessibility for travelers in
wheelchairs, persons with reduced mobility, buggies, strollers, exceptional accessibility for all”
(Document TAG, 1987).
Legal Requirements
In 1979, legal provisions governing the accessibility of buildings and mass transit systems were prac-
tically complete, with the 1975 law and two 1978 enforcement decrees. The law covered new build-
ings open to the public, while the decrees dealt with existing buildings that were not yet accessible,
and with the adaptation of mass transit services. The distinction between new and existing buildings
expressed the basic idea of implementing accessibility through adaptation, a process that was to be
THE EVOLUTION OF DESIGN FOR ALL IN PUBLIC BUILDINGS AND TRANSPORTATION IN FRANCE 12.3
used for transportation systems. By implementing trams accessible to all and minibuses suitable for
people with disabilities, the city of Grenoble applied the new legislation fully.
Buses and Regulations
When the tram project was planned, accessible buses had not yet been envisaged. Moreover, by limiting
access to one person using a wheelchair, which has to be secured by means of a bar that can be pulled
down, the French regulations for buses were an obstacle to accessibility. These regulations now have to
be modified. In France, the carrier is responsible for the people carried, e.g., unlike in Germany.
Advocacy
The first demonstration by people with disabilities to be held in France took place in Grenoble in
1971. The same year also saw a person with a serious disability elected to the city council. These
two events defined the context of the time, where the trend in opinion ran against all forms of social
exclusion. “A handicap is not due to the chances of nature but to deficiencies in social legislation, to
industrial injuries, to the welfare state. . . . Cities have to be changed” (Comité de lutte des handi-
capés, 1978). This trend of opinion, opposed to traditional associations, represented strong pressure
for a better development of a city for all.
Among the pressure groups were several rehabilitation centers in that urban area. In one of them,
the Centre Médico Universitaire D. Douady, classes and medical care are given along with primary
and secondary education. It is also the only place where disabled people can receive a university
education in France. Because they needed to break down their isolation, the centers acted to open up
to the nearby town, and the new tram helped them. In 1983, after the positive referendum result in
favor of the accessible tram, elected representatives reacted to pressure from these groups.
Planning
In 1976, Herbin, an architect and town planner, was given a consulting project to promote acces-
sibility in the town’s highway maintenance operations. The project first required a long process of
technical research. The industries involved needed to follow a comprehensive plan, including issues
of comfort, accessibility, security, and aesthetics. These constraints led research departments to
rethink technical solutions.
Technical Traditions
Standard French tramways had been in use for a short time and exceeded the technical criteria, but
failed to meet accessibility criteria. Electric motorization equipment in the bottom of the car required
elevated floors that were incompatible with the level of the platforms at the tram stops (Fig. 12.1a).
For a time, the possibility of overcoming this height difference by adding some structural modifica-
tions, such as elevator platforms or large ramps, was envisaged. The inadequacy of these solutions
led to a rethinking of the design of the trams.
Tram associations were under pressure from engineers and managers, who argued that a great
deal more money than usual would have to be spent. But a technical solution was finally found by
reversing the usual logic: the electrical drive elements, such as shift batteries, were placed on the
tram’s roof (Fig. 12.1b), allowing for a lower floor in the tram. A retractable door step completed
the leveling with the sidewalk (Fig. 12.2). This example is quite telling: from a very precise criterion
of use, i.e., accessibility for the whole population, technical constraints described as obligatory were
revised. According to Norman (1996), “People have to be the priority issue, before technology, in
order to ensure that the final result will meet the needs of the persons who are expecting it.”
(a) (b)
FIGURE 12.1 Principle of tram accessibility: battery location. In the classical tram (a),
the electrical drive elements, such as shift batteries, were placed in the bottom of the car and
required three steps up that were incompatible with accessibility. In the accessible tram (b), the
electrical drive elements such as shift batteries are placed on the roof of the tram, allowing for
a lower floor in the tram.
(Drawing by the author.)
Long description: (a) The black-and-white drawing shows a tram in section with batteries placed
in the bottom of the car. A user represented in the drawing must climb up the batteries with three
steps to get to the tram. Technical criteria failed to meet accessibility criteria. (b) The black-and-
white drawing shows a tram in section with batteries placed on the roof. Two users represented
in the drawing, one in a wheelchair and another with baby stroller, get into a car on a lower floor.
FIGURE 12.2 Horizontal accessibility from the platform.
A retractable door step facilitated the leveling with the side-
walk.
(Photo by the author.)
Long description: This photo shows the retractable doorstep
to facilitate the leveling with the sidewalk. The technical con-
straints permitted accessibility for everyone.
12.4
THE EVOLUTION OF DESIGN FOR ALL IN PUBLIC BUILDINGS AND TRANSPORTATION IN FRANCE 12.5
Buses
Would it be possible to improve buses as was done with tramways? Trams had introduced such an
access quality to the town that equipment had to be faultless and highway maintenance had to be
reorganized. Low floors had been chosen, together with heightened platforms (Fig. 12.3). The first
accessible bus was bought in 1995. In the end, 20 bus lines and 3 trolley bus lines were accessible.
Accessibility Follow-Through
The first important action was undoubtedly the city of Grenoble’s December 1976 decision to com-
mission an accessibility consultant. This assignment contributed to the extension of the accessibility
concept to the whole population.
Associations and Administrations
Associations have been playing a watching game. They were consulted and have been suggesting
improvements. Whenever the tram’s accessibility is not followed up, it is fair to say that associations
and the entire public end up controlling the tram’s use. However, good coordination is always dif-
ficult to establish between scattered administrative services and associations.
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 12.3 Accessible bus station and entry ramp. Low floors and elevated platforms are used for buses and for tramways. (Photo by
the author.)
Long description: Two photos show the accessible bus station with (a) heightened platform on the sidewalk and (b) a retractable ramp to
get into the bus.