Nof S.Y. Springer Handbook of Automation

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Springer Handbook

of Automation

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123

Handbook

Springer

of Automation

Nof (Ed.)

With DVD-ROM, 1005 Figures, 222 in four color and 149 Tables

Editor

Shimon Y. Nof

Purdue University

PRISM Center, and School of Industrial Engineering

315 N. Grant Street

West Lafayette IN 47907, USA

nof@purdue.edu

ISBN: 978-3-540-78830-0 e-ISBN: 978-3-540-78831-7

DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-78831-7

Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York

Library of Congress Control Number: 2008934574

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Dedication

This Springer Handbook is dedicated to all of us who collaborate with automation to advance humanity.

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VII

Foreword

Automation Is for Humans and for Our Environment

Preparing to write the Foreword for this outstanding

Springer Handbook of Automation, I havefollowed Shi-

mon Y. Nof’s statement in his Preface vision: “The

purpose of this Handbook is to understand automa-

tion knowledge and expertise for the solution of human

society’s signiﬁcant challenges; automation provided

answers in the past, and it will be harnessed to do so

in the future.” The signiﬁcant challenges are becoming

ever more complex, and learning how to address them

with thehelp ofautomation issigniﬁcant too.The publi-

cation of this Handbook with the excellent information

and advice by a group of top international experts is,

therefore, most timely and relevant.

The core of any automatic system is the idea of

feedback, a simple principle governing any regulation

process occurring in nature. The process of feedback

governs the growth of living organisms and regulates

an innumerable quantity of variables on which life is

based, such as body temperature, blood pressure, cells

concentration, and on which the interaction of living

organisms with the environment is based, such as equi-

librium, motion, visual coordination, response to stress

and challenge, and so on.

Humans have always copied nature in the design

of their inventions: feedback is no exception. The in-

troduction of feedback in the design of man-made

automation processes occurred as early as in the golden

century of Hellenistic civilization, the third century BC.

The scholar Ktesibios, who lived in Alexandria circa

240–280 BC and whose work has been handed to us

only by the later roman architect Vitruvius, is credited

for the invention of the ﬁrst feedback device. He used

feedback in the design of a water clock. The idea was to

obtain a measure of time from the inspection of the po-

sition of a ﬂoater in a tank of water ﬁlled at constant

velocity. To make this simple principle work, Ktesi-

bios’s challenge was to obtain a constant ﬂow of water

in the tank. He achieved this by designing a feedback

device in which a conic ﬂoating valve serves the dual

purpose of sensing the level of water in a compartment

and of moderating the outﬂow of water.

The idea of using feedback to moderate the ve-

locity of rotating devices eventually led to the design

of the centrifugal governor in the 18th century. In

1787, T. Mead patented such a device for the regula-

Alberto Isidori

President IFAC

tion of the rotary motion of a wind

mill, letting the sail area be de-

creased or increased as the weights

in the centrifugal governor swing

outward or, respectively, inward. The

same principle wasapplied two years

later, by M. Boulton and J. Watt,

to control the steam inlet valve of

a steam engine. The basic simple

idea of proportional feedback was

further reﬁned in the middle of the

19th century, with the introduction

of integral control to compensate

for constant disturbances.W. von Siemens, in the 1880s,

designed a governor in which integral action, achieved

by means of a wheel-and-cylinder mechanical integra-

tor, was deliberately introduced. The same principle of

proportional and integral feedback gave rise, by the

turning of the century, to the ﬁrst devices for the auto-

matic steering of ships, and became one of the enabling

technologies that made the birth of aviation possible.

The development of sensors, essential ingredients in

any automatic control system, resulted in the creation

of new companies.

The perception that feedback control and, in a wider

domain, automation were taking the shape of an au-

tonomous discipline, occurred at the time of the second

world war, where the application to radar and artillery

had a dramatic impact, and immediately after. By the

early 1950s, the principles of this newborn discipline

quickly became a core ingredient of most industrial en-

gineering curricula, professional and academic societies

were established, textbooks and handbooks became

available. At the beginning of the 1960s, two new driv-

ing forcesprovoked an enormous leap ahead: the rushto

space, and the advent of digital computers in the imple-

mentation of control system. The principles of optimal

control, pioneeredby R. Bellman and L. Pontryagin, be-

came indispensable ingredients for the solution of the

problem of soft landing on the moon and in manned

space missions.Integrated computer control, introduced

in 1959 by Texaco for set point adjustment and coor-

dination of several local feedback loops in a reﬁnery,

quickly became the standard technique for controlling

industrial processes.

VIII

Those years saw also the birth of an International

Federation of Automatic Control (IFAC), as a multi-

national federation of scientiﬁc and/or engineering

societies each of which represents, in its own nation,

values and interests of scientists and professionals ac-

tive in the ﬁeld of automation and in related scientiﬁc

disciplines. The purpose of such Federation, established

in Heidelberg in 1956, is to facilitate growth and dis-

semination of knowledge useful to the development

of automation and to its application to engineering

and science. Created at a time of acute international

tensions, IFAC was a precursor of the spirit of the so-

called Helsinki agreements of scientiﬁc and technical

cooperation between east and west signed in 1973. It

represented, in fact, a sincere manifestation of interest,

from scientists and professionals of the two confronting

spheres of inﬂuence in which the world was split at that

time, towarda truecooperation andcommon goals.This

was the ﬁrst opportunity, after the Second World War

that scientists and engineers had of sharing complemen-

tary scientiﬁc and technological backgrounds, notably

the early successes in the space race in the Soviet Union

and the advent of electronic computers in the United

States. The ﬁrst President of IFAC was an engineer

from the Unites States, while the ﬁrst World Congress

of the Federation was held in Moscow in 1960. The

Federation currently includes 48 national member orga-

nizations, runs morethan 60 scientiﬁc Conferences with

a three-year periodicity, including a World Congress of

Automatic Control, and publishes some of the leading

Journals in the ﬁeld.

Since then, three decades of steady progresses fol-

lowed. Automation is now an essential ingredient in

manufacturing, in petrochemical, pharmaceutical, and

paper industry, in mining and metal industry, in conver-

sion and distribution of energy, and in many services.

Feedback control is indispensable and ubiquitous in au-

tomobiles, ships and aircrafts. Feedback control is also

a key element ofnumerous scientiﬁc instrumentsas well

as of consumer products, such as compact disc players.

Despite of this pervasive role of automation in every as-

pect of the technology, its speciﬁc value is not always

perceived assuch andautomation isoften confusedwith

other disciplines of engineering. The advent of robotics,

in the late 1970s, is, in some sense, an exception to this,

because the impact of roboticsin modern manufacturing

industry is under the eyes of everybody. However, also

in this case there is a tendency to consider robotics and

the associated impact on industry as an implementation

of ideas and principles of computer engineering rather

than principles of automation and feedback control.

In the recent years, though, automation and control

have experienced a third, tumultuous expansion. Pro-

gresses in the automobile industry in the last decade

have only been possible because of automation. Feed-

back control loops pervade our cars: steering, breaking,

attitude stabilization, motion stabilization, combustion,

emissions are all feedback controlled. This is a dramatic

change that has revolutionized the way in which cars

are conceived and maintained. Industrial robots have

reached a stage of full maturity, but new generations of

service robots are on their way. Four-legged and even

two-legged autonomous walking machines are able to

walk through rough terrains, service robot are able to

autonomously interact with uncertain environment and

adapt their mission to changing tasks, to explore hos-

tile or hazardous environments and to perform jobs

that would be otherwise dangerous for humans. Service

robots assist elderly or disabled people and are about

to perform routine services at home. Surgical robotics

is a reality: minimally invasive micro robots are able to

move within the body and to reach areas not directly ac-

cessible by standard techniques. Robots with haptic in-

terfaces, able to return a force feedback to a remote hu-

man operator, maketele-surgery possible. New frontiers

of automation encompass applications in agriculture, in

recycling, in hazardous waste disposal, in environment

protection, and in safe and reliable transportation.

At the dawn of the 20th century, the determinis-

tic view of classical mechanics and some consequent

positivistic philosophic beliefs that dominated the 19th

century had been shaken by the advent of relativistic

physics. Today, after a century dominated by the expan-

sion of technology and, to some extent, by the belief

that no technological goal was impossible to achieve,

similar woes are feared. The clear perception that re-

sources are limited, the uncertainty of the ﬁnancial

markets, the diverse rates of development among na-

tions, all contribute to the awareness that the model

of development followed in so far in the industrialized

world will change. Today’s wisdom and beliefs may

not be the same tomorrow. All these expected changes

might provide yet another great opportunity for au-

tomation. Automation will no longer be seen only as

automatic production, but as a complex of technologies

that guarantee reliability, ﬂexibility, safety, for humans

as well as for the environment. In a world of limited

resources, automation can provide the answer to the

challenges of a sustainable development. Automation

has the opportunity of making a greater and even more

signiﬁcant impact on society. In the ﬁrst half of the 20th

century, the precepts of engineering and management

helped solving economic recession and ease social anx-

iety. Similar opportunities and challenges are occurring

today.

This leading-edge Springer Handbook of Automa-

tion will serve as a highly useful and powerful tool and

companion to all modern-day engineers and managers

in their respective profession. It comes at an appropriate

time, and provides a fundamental core of basic prin-

ciples, knowledge and experience by means of which

engineers and managers will be able to quickly respond

to changing automation needs and to ﬁnd creative so-

lutions to the challenges of today’s and tomorrow’s

problems.

It has been a privilege for many members of

IFAC to participate with Springer Publishers, Dr. Shi-

mon Y. Nof, and the over 250 experts, authors and

reviewers, in creating this excellent resource of au-

tomation knowledge and ideas. It provides also a full

and comprehensive spectrum of current and prospec-

tive automation applications, in industry, agriculture,

infrastructures, services, health care, enterprise and

commerce. A number of recently developed concepts

and powerful emerging techniques are presented here

for the ﬁrst time in an organized manner, and clearly il-

lustrated by specialists in those ﬁelds. Readers of this

original Springer Handbook of Automation are offered

the opportunity to learn proven knowledge from un-

derlying basic theory to cutting-edge applications in

a variety of emerging ﬁelds.

Alberto Isidori

Rome, March 2009