Mikkelsen A., Langhelle O. (eds.) Arctic Oil and Gas. Sustanability at Risk?

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Arctic Oil and Gas

The Arctic is predicted to hold a large part of the world’s undiscovered oil and gas

fields. With the rise in global energy demand and the focus upon energy security,

the Arctic environment is likely to experience increasing pressure from the push

to uncover these reserves.

This book analyzes the expanding oil and gas activities in the Arctic from the

perspective of sustainable development and corporate social responsibility. The

focus is on the territories of the Arctic rim where the current and future oil and

gas activities in the Arctic are and will be located. The book raises a number of

questions including how sustainable development has been framed in the Arctic

and the interaction between indigenous peoples, governments and oil and gas

companies.

The book is divided into three parts. In the first part of the book, oil and gas

are approached through the concepts of sustainable development and corporate

social responsibility together with the challenge of climate change. The second

part consists of case studies from Alaska, Canada, Norway and Russia, where the

discourses on oil and gas in the Arctic are explored, and the final part of the book

draws together the material from the country studies in a comparative manner.

The book is primarily aimed at academics, universities, public authorities and

the oil and gas industry. It is useful, more specifically, for postgraduate students

who are undertaking research in energy and gas industries, environmental

economics and ecological economics.

Aslaug Mikkelsen is Rector of the University of Stavanger in Norway.

Oluf Langhelle is Professor at the Faculty of Social Sciences at the University of

Stavanger in Norway.

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Arctic Oil and Gas

Sustainability at risk?

Edited by Aslaug Mikkelsen and Oluf Langhelle

Arctic Oil and Gas

Sustainability at risk?

Edited by Aslaug Mikkelsen

and Oluf Langhelle

First published 2008 by Routledge

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada

by Routledge

270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group,

an informa business

Langhelle; individual chapters, the contributors

or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,

now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,

or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in

writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

A catalog record for this book has been requested

ISBN 10: 0-415-44330-X (hbk)

ISBN 10: 0-203-89374-3 (ebk)

ISBN 13: 978-0-415-44330-2 (hbk)

ISBN 13: 978-0-203-89374-6 (ebk)

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008.

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ISBN 0-203-89374-3 Master e-book ISBN

Contents

List of figures vii

List of tables viii

List of contributors ix

Preface xii

Acknowledgements xiii

1 Introduction 1

ASLAUG MIKKELSEN AND OLUF LANGHELLE

Part I

The Arctic: context, framework and methodology 13

2 Framing oil and gas in the Arctic from a sustainable

development perspective 15

OLUF LANGHELLE, BJØRN-TORE BLINDHEIM AND OLAUG ØYGARDEN

3 Climate change and consequences for the Arctic 45

TORLEIV BILSTAD

4 Corporate social responsibility: the economic

and institutional responsibility of business in society 57

BJØRN-TORE BLINDHEIM

5 Framework and methodology: regulation and discourse

analysis as a research strategy 87

OVE HEITMANN HANSEN, OLUF LANGHELLE AND ROBERT ANDERSON

Part II

Legal and institutional framework: case studies 109

6 Legal and institutional framework: a comparative analysis 111

NIGEL BANKES

7 Expanding oil and gas activities on the North Slope of Alaska 139

ASLAUG MIKKELSEN, SHARMAN HALEY AND OLAUG ØYGARDEN

8 Oil and gas activities at the Mackenzie Delta, in

Canada’s Northwest Territories 173

ALDENE MEIS MASON, ROBERT ANDERSON AND LEO-PAUL DANA

9 Going North: the new petroleum province of Norway 200

OVE HEITMANN HANSEN AND METTE RAVN MIDTGARD

10 The Russian model: merging profit and sustainability 240

ELENA N. ANDREYEVA AND VALERY A. KRYUKOV

Part III

Comparisons and managerial implications 289

11 Human rights and indigenous peoples in the Arctic:

what are the implications for the oil and gas industry? 291

KETIL FRED HANSEN AND NIGEL BANKES

12 Perceptions of Arctic challenges: Alaska, Canada,

Norway and Russia compared 317

OLUF LANGHELLE AND KETIL FRED HANSEN

13 Managerial implications 350

ASLAUG MIKKELSEN, RONALD D. CAMP II AND ROBERT E. ANDERSON

Index 381

vi Contents

Figures

1.1 The Arctic’s undiscovered oil and gas resources 3

3.1 Maximum oil exploration travel activities on the tundra

(ACIA, 2004) 49

3.2 Methane concentration doubling over the last 150 years

(Petit, Jouzel, Raynaud et al., 1999) 50

3.3 Arctic ice cover (Norsk Romsenter/National Snow and

Ice Center, 2007) 52

3.4 Concentrations of CO

and temperature from 400,000 years

Vostok Ice Core data set (Corell, 2006) 53

4.1 The degrees of responsibility assigned to business

in different approaches to CSR 60

5.1 Major actors associated with the oil and gas industry

in the Arctic (Anderson, MacAulay, Kayseas et al., 2007) 88

7.1 Allocation of gross Alaskan North Slope (ANS) production

value 2004 (US$13.3 billion total) 148

10.1 Dynamics of oil and gas output in the Northern regions

of Russia compared to the total output for the country 244

10.2 Dynamics of receipts of the budget of the Yamal-Nenets

Autonomous Okrug (YaNAO) v. gas production dynamics 267

12.1 Arctic share of global petroleum production, 2002 319

13.1 Major actors associated with the oil and gas industry

in the Arctic 351

13.2 Corporate social responsibility and long-run survival 354

13.3 Corporate approaches to social responsibility 355

13.4 Corporate approaches to social responsibility 363

Tables

4.1 The social responsibility of business 76

5.1 Interview matrix 102

6.1 Canadian land claim agreements 124

10.2 Distribution of oil and gas reserves and resources

in oil- and gas-bearing provinces, as a percentage

of Russia’s total 243

10.1 Russian oil and gas revenue flows (federal/regional as of 2006):

primary distribution of revenues 247

10.3 Development indicators for the key oil and gas regions

of the Russian North 259

10.4 Development indicators for the key oil and gas regions

of the Russian North 260

10.5 Complex ecological assessment in the Arctic regions of RF,

2003 278

11.1 Ratifications of selected human rights instruments 292

12.1 Kyoto Protocol targets for US, Canada, Norway and Russia 327

12.2 Increase in CO

emissions from 1990 (baseline year

in the Kyoto Protocol) to 2005 in percentage (without land use,

land-use change and forestry), and from 2000 to 2005 329

12.3 Energy industries’ sector share of total greenhouse gas

emissions (without LULUCF) in 1990 and 2005 in Canada,

Norway, Russia and US 329

12.4 Protected areas in Arctic Canada, Norway, Russia and Alaska,

classified in International Union for Conservation

of Nature categories I-V, plus Ramsar international wetland

sites as of 2000. Areas smaller than 10 km

are not included 334

Contributors

Robert Anderson is a Professor in the Faculty of Business Administration at the

University of Regina, in Saskatchewan, Canada. He is the Editor of the Journal

of Small Business and Entrepreneurship and Co-editor, with Leo Paul Dana, of

the Journal of Enterprising Communities. He is former President of the Canadian

Council for Small Business and Entrepreneurship and is a Director of the

Canadian Council for Small Business as well as a member of the Small Business

Research Advisory Committee of the Department of Industry and Commerce

Canada.

Elena N. Andreyeva is Chief of the Laboratory of Arctic Studies, Institute for

System Analysis, Moscow, Russian Academy of Sciences; leader of the Russian

and International research projects on social and economic issues of Arctic devel-

opment; and an expert on governmental and regional structures. Most of her proj-

ects are connected with the use of non-renewable natural resources and the

interactions of stakeholders, including indigenous people and industrial compa-

nies. She works directly with regional administrations on questions of social

policy, programs of economic development and legal issues of resource use

conflicts. Her main focus is on oil and gas areas, particularly the coastal zone and

the Arctic shelf.

Nigel Bankes is a Professor of Law at the University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada,

where he has taught since 1984. He was seconded to Canada’s Department of

Foreign Affairs and International Trade as Professor in Residence for the 1999–2000

academic year. His principal research interests are in the areas of indigenous

peoples’law, water law, oil and gas law and international environmental law. He was

the lead author of the ‘Legal Systems’ chapter of the Arctic Human Development

Report of the Arctic Council and is a former chair of the Canadian Arctic Resources

Committee, a Canadian non-governmental organization.

Torleiv Bilstad is Professor of Environmental Engineering at the University of

Stavanger, Norway. He received his academic degrees from the University of

Wisconsin: Ph.D. (1977) and M.Sc. (1973) in Civil and Environmental

Engineering, and B.Sc. in Civil Engineering (1972). His main research activities

are concerned with water quality and climate change. Treatments for potable