Mikkelsen A., Langhelle O. (eds.) Arctic Oil and Gas. Sustanability at Risk?
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Mackenzie Valley Gas Pipeline, 124, 175,
177, 181–194 (see also pipeline(s))
malaria, 46
mammals
distribution of, 37–38
marine, 37, 139, 153, 210, 335 (see also
whaling)
petroleum industry and, 153
See also hunting; reindeer herding;
whaling
Maya case, 306, 314
Melkøya, 2
methane, 45, 48–50, 50, 215. See also
greenhouse gases
Métis people, 124, 179–80, 184, 188,
mining, 31, 37, 128, 191, 198, 267–69, 281
Mobil Oil Canada, 181
modernization theory, 89. See also
indigenous peoples: modernization of
Murmansk region, 263
demographics of, 278
ecological assessment of, 278
pollution in, 262, 278–79
resource division in, 282
socio-economic development in,
263–65, 279–80
NadymGazprom, 267, 277
National Association of Norwegian Sámi
(NSR), 224, 226, 298, 331
National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska
(NPR-A), 140, 145, 155, 160–61, 368
Natural Resources Defense Council, 330
Niger Delta, 62, 69, 75
non-governmental organizations (NGOs),
5, 165, 330
North Slope of Alaska
employment in, 142 (see also
employment)
environmental sustainability and, 151–55
history of, 140
map of, 141
offshore petroleum activities, 139
Prudhoe Bay (see Prudhoe Bay)
social problems in, 140
stakeholder discourses in, 150
North Slope Borough (NSB) (Alaska),
117, 144, 154–57, 163–65, 170
Northwest Territories, 116
demographics, 175–76, 312
geography, 174
governance of, 116
mining in, 31 (see also mining)
oil and gas activities in, 8, 174–75
Norway
Barents Sea and (see Barents Sea)
climate change and, 328 (see also
climate change)
CO
2
emissions by, 329
demographics, 175–76, 206
economy in, 217, 322
Ekofisk field in, 201, 236
employment in, 216–18
environmental movement in, 201–202,
210, 220–21
federal government in, 112, 118,
203–204 (see also Norway:
Storting)
Finnmark, 118–19, 125–267, 216,
219–220, 233
Finnmark Act, 113,126, 128, 223, 234,
299–300, 337
fisheries in, 216, 222
geography, 205, 206
Goliat oil field in, 9, 208, 211, 213,
215, 218
Government Pension Fund, 205
Hammerfest, 206, 207, 215–17, 341
Human Rights Act (1999), 118, 293
indigenous peoples’ rights in, 125–27,
292, 292
industrial structure in, 219
integrated management plan of, 208
Kyoto Protocol and, 214, 327
land ownership in, 120, 340 (see also
Finnmark Act)
licensing in, 203
Lofoten (see Lofoten)
Melkøya, 2
Mining Act, 128
Ministry of Petroleum and Energy,
118–19, 203–4
natural resource ownership in, 120
Norwegian Petroleum Act of, 121, 202
Norwegian Petroleum Directorate
(NPD), 204, 235
petroleum-free zones in, 212–14,
334–332
Petroleum Tax Act (1975) of, 205
policy making in, 227
politics of, 202, 219, 342
regional and local government in, 118
resource management by, 202
Russian relations with, 232
Sameting of (see Sámi people:
governance of)
Shtokman field and, 215, 229, 341, 248,
251, 264, 280
386 Index
Norway (Continued)
Snøhvit gas field, 9, 207, 216–18, 341
Soria Moria Declaration, 213, 215–217,
233
State’s Direct Financial Interest (SDFI),
204–5
Storting, 118–19, 126, 201, 203–4, 214,
227
Norwegian Continental Shelf (NCS),
201–2, 204, 206, 207, 235–36
Norwegian Pollution Control Authority
(SFT), 210, 212, 225, 229
Nuiqsut people, 140, 152, 158–60, 164,
368–69
Nunavik, 2
Nunavut, 2, 8, 116–17, 124, 312, 325, 335
Nuuk Declaration, 26–27
Offshore Oil and Gas Guidelines (PAME),
34. See also petroleum industry:
offshore
oil and gas. See petroleum industry
oil spills, 5, 34–35, 154, 168, 170–71,
210–11, 283, 291, 343. See also
pipeline(s): leakage from
Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD), 15,
73, 230
Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC), 2
Ottawa Declaration, 1–2, 27
Our Common Future (WCED), 4, 15–16,
21–22, 24–25
Pan-Canadian Innovations Initiative for the
Northern Women in Mining and Oil
and Gas Project, 191
permafrost
as carbon reservoir, 48–50, 215
damage to, 33, 193
definition of, 49, 193
petroleum industry
Arctic share of, 319
climate change and, 32–34, 39, 93, 214,
326, 330–31, 344 (see also climate
change)
cumulative effects of, 152
employment by, 216–218, 323–4
(see also employment)
fisheries and, 282–84, 340
negative influences of, 33, 37–38
offshore, 8, 33–35, 80, 139, 147, 150,
154, 164, 169, 207, 214, 229,
242–44, 242, 247, 256, 26–69, 340,
permafrost (see permafrost)
pollution from, 35–36, 47
positive influences of, 33
production, 11, 35, 38, 134, 140, 147,
148, 166, 170, 175, 181, 201,
203–4, 208, 221, 235, 243,
244–48, 251, 256, 259, 262, 267,
278, 318–19, 319, 330–31, 341
(see also production sharing
contracts)
regulatory framework for, 89–95
reserves, 2, 3, 5, 12, 206, 243, 265, 319
seismic testing for, 37, 154, 163–64,
203, 262
sustainable development and, 30–37,
332–34, 345
transport and, 10, 33, 35–36, 47, 49,
154, 170, 256–57, 280 (see also
pipeline(s))
wildlife refuges and, 149 (see also
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge)
Phillips Petroleum Company Norway, 201
pipeline(s)
costs, 148
environmental effects of, 153, 183,
192–93, 330
leakage from, 170–71, 193 (see also oil
spills)
Mackenzie Valley Gas Pipeline and,
124, 175, 177, 181–94
property rights and, 141, 144, 178,
180–81
Russian, 247–48, 266, 280
socioeconomic development and,
187–91
Trans Alaska 145, 166
Pipelines Operations Training Committee
(POTC), 188
pollutants, 26–27, 35–36, 47, 99
production sharing contracts, 251, 253
Protection of the Arctic Marine
Environment (PAME), 26. See also
Offshore Oil and Gas Guidelines
Prudhoe Bay
history, 8, 129, 140–41
large-scale development in, 2
oil production of, 166, 170
pipeline leak and, 170
reindeer herding, 37, 125–27, 135, 223,
270, 273, 275–77, 280–81,
324, 336
regime of accumulation, 91–93, 95, 174,
195
Index 387
regulation
corporate social responsibility and,
65–68, 76,
environmental protection and, 146, 193,
229
implementation, 310–11
indigenous peoples and, 224
of petroleum industry, 231, 284
social, 92–95, 173
theory, 88–91
See also specific laws
resource claims. See indigenous peoples:
resource claims of
Rio Accords
Agenda 21, 17, 22, 24, 64, 85
Convention on Biodiversity, 17
Framework Convention on Climate
Change, 17, 23, 38, 326
Rio Declaration on Environment and
Development, 17, 27
Statement of Forest Principles, 17
Rio Earth Summit, 15
Russia
Arkhangelsk region of, 100, 243, 263–64,
278
Barents Sea oil and gas exploration by,
228–30 (see also Barents Sea:
petroleum activities in)
centralism in, 246
Code of Indigenous Administration
(1822), 130
constitution, 120, 293, 310
continental shelf, 243, 248–49
corporatism, 246, 284
economic transition of, 241–42,
257–58, 263, 268, 270, 342
employment in Northern regions of,
245, 263 (see also employment)
environmental problems in, 261
federal government in, 113–16
fisheries in (see fisheries: Arctic)
greenhouse gas emissions by, 261, 329
indigenous peoples of, 270–72, 292,
293 (see also indigenous peoples)
judicial system of, 246
Khantyt-Mansii Autonomous Okrugs, 2,
75 (see also Russia)
Kyoto Protocol and, 327, 328
land ownership in, 120–21, 339
Law on the Protection of the
Environment, 122
Law on the Subsoil (1992), 116, 121,
250–52
legislation in, 249, 250–52, 341
Ministry of Natural Resources (MNR),
272
motivations of, 322
Murmansk region of (see Murmansk
region),
natural resource ownership in, 120–21
obshchinas in, 121, 131–32
oil spills in, 283 (see also oil spills)
paternalism in, 246, 284
petroleum companies in (see specific
companies)
petroleum export by, 256
petroleum history in, 243
petroleum production by, 229, 244, 245,
259, 260, 267
petroleum reserves in, 241–42, 242,
243, 245, 249, 250
petroleum revenues in, 247, 267
pipelines in, 247–48 (see also
pipeline(s))
power engineering in, 265
principle of joint jurisdiction in,
252–53
production sharing contracts (PSCs) in,
251, 253
resettlement from the North in, 268
Shtokman field and, 215, 229, 245, 248,
251, 257–58, 263–64, 280, 341
socioeconomic problems in, 258
as stakeholder, 247
sustainable development in, 257–60,
284, 318
Territories of Traditional Natural Use
(TTNU) in, 131, 269, 271–72
Underground Resources Law, 254–56
Yamal-Nenets (see Yamal-Nenets)
Russian Agency of Sub-soil Resources
(Rosnedra), 249
Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples
of the North (RAIPON), 40, 270–72,
278, 310, 338
Russian Joint Stock Company, 264
Sahtu Dene people, 124, 174, 179–80,
184–85, 190, 193
Sakha Republic, 31, 114, 132, 242, 248,
250, 259, 260
Sakhalin Association of Indigenous
Peoples, 272
Sámi Council, 40, 223–24, 301, 305
Sámi people
assimilation of, 337
culture of, 126–28, 223–24
demographics of, 118, 126, 223, 324
388 Index
Sámi people (Continued)
industrial development and, 280–82
governance of, 113, 119, 126–27, 224,
226, 301 (see also Sámi Council)
national association of, 224
property rights of, 123, 125–27, 224,
226, 297–300
reindeer herding by, 125–26, 128, 281
(see also reindeer herding)
resource claims of, 225–26, 297
Russian, 280–81
Sameting (see Sámi people: governance
of)
self-determination of, 226–27
sea level, 45, 47, 50–54. See also climate
change
seismic monitoring and testing, 37, 154,
163–64, 203, 262
Shell Canada Ltd, 163, 181
Shell Oil Company, 12, 150, 163–64, 248,
273, 330, 377–79
Shell Salym Development (SSD), 273
Siberia, 2–4, 31, 34, 48–49, 131–32,
242–43, 250, 265, 269, 277
Siberia–Energy (SE) Ltd., 273
Sierra Club, 93, 194, 330. See also
environmental organizations
stakeholder theory, 59–60. See also
corporate social responsibility
Statoil (now StatoilHydro), 62, 75,
78–79, 201, 204–5, 229, 245, 250,
264, 341
Status of Women’s Council (SWC),
190–91
Storting. See Norway: Storting
sustainable development
in Arctic, 25–30
Arctic Council and, 4, 15 (see also
Arctic Council)
Arctic petroleum and, 30–37, 332–34
Brundtland Commission (see
Brundtland Commission)
business and, 74
in Canada, 318
conservation and, 324–25
corporate barriers to, 370–74
corporate social responsibility and (see
corporate social responsibility:
sustainable development and)
definition of, 4, 20
economics of, 29–30, 38, 192, 257
energy consumption and, 23 (see also
energy consumption)
environment and, 29
environmental sustainability and, 21–22,
38, 192
global framing of, 16–25
history of, 18
indigenous peoples and, 24, 155–56,
369 (see also indigenous peoples)
institutional condition for, 64–70
national policies for, 318
in Norway, 318
petroleum exploration and, 30–37,
332–34, 345
requirements for, 195
revenue distribution and, 318
in Russia, 257–60, 284, 318
social aspects of, 29–30, 38, 192
in United States, 318
World Commission on Environment and
Development (WCED) and, 19
Task Force on Sustainable Development
and Utilization (TFSDU), 26
tax revenues, 31, 170, 324
technology
corporate social responsibility and,
366–67
environment and, 35, 154–55, 366
indigenous peoples and, 8
petroleum industry and, 200, 215, 221,
229–30, 235, 366
terra nullius doctrine, 133, 295
Teshekpuk Lake, 160–61, 162
Trans Alaska Pipeline System, 141,
145, 166
TransCanada Pipelines Ltd., 181–82
transfer payments and, 32, 124, 187
transport of petroleum. See petroleum
industry: transport and; pipeline(s)
tundra, 37, 47, 49, 49, 158, 170. See also
permafrost
unemployment. See employment
United Nations
Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED), 4, 17–18,
22, 25–26
corporate social responsibility and, 58
(see also corporate social
responsibility
Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous
Peoples (UNDRIP), 291, 294,
303–5, 358–59
Development Program (UNDP), 74
Environmental Programme (UNEP),
18, 212
Index 389
United Nations (Continued)
Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC), 17, 23, 38, 326
Millennium Development Goals, 46
United States
Alaska (see Alaska)
Bureau of Land Management (BLM),
145, 160–61, 368
CO
2
emissions by, 329 (see also
greenhouse gases)
federal government, 113
human rights in, 292, 293
Kyoto Protocol and, 327, 328 (see also
Kyoto Protocol
local government in, 116
Minerals Management Service (MMS)
of, 122, 145, 147–49
National Environmental Policy Act
(NEPA), 145, 149
National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska
(NPR-A), 140, 145, 153, 160–61,
167, 368
natural resource ownership in, 120
Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Lands
Act, 147–49
Working Group for Indigenous Peoples
(UNWGIP), 301, 340
University of Calgary, 282
water storage, 46
Wescoast Energy Inc., 181
whaling, 144, 150, 153–54, 168, 361–62.
See also Alaska Eskimo Whaling
Commission
Working Group on the Conservation of
Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF), 26,
36–37, 39, 333, 335,
Working Group on Emergency
Preparedness and Response (EPPR),
26, 30
Working Group on the Protection of the
Arctic Marine Environment (PAME),
26, 30, 34–35, 79
World Bank, 15, 58, 62, 89, 93, 261, 295,
311, 357, 359–60, 362–63
World Bank Country Assistance Strategy
(CAS), 261
World Commission on Environment and
Development (WCED), 4, 19–20.
See also Brundtland Commission;
Our Common Future
World Conservation Strategy (1980),
18–19
World Council of Churches, 18, 93
World Health Organization (WHO), 46
World Trade Organization (WTO), 15
World-Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), 18,
210, 213–15, 230, 282, 335
World Wildlife Federation, 183
World Wildlife Fund Norway, 210, 342
Yamal-Nenets
development indicators, 259, 260
economics of, 241, 245, 267–69
gas fields and pipelines, 245, 266, 274
gas production, 245, 265
gas revenues, 267
geography, 265
indigenous peoples and, 272–75
large-scale development in, 214
yedoma, 48–49
Yukon, 40, 116–17, 121, 123, 124, 124,
179–81, 339
Yukon Oil and Gas Act (1998), 121
390 Index