Martin P.M. Handbook of Deposition Technologies for Films and Coatings, Third Edition: Science, Applications and Technology
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Jet Vapor Deposition 901
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Index
A
Abbreviations xiii
Abrasion resistance 699
Abrasive
Cleaning 96
Absolute characterization 719
Accelerated adhesion testing 721
Activity
of gaseous species 320
Adatom
binding energies 555
clusters 565
desorption 564–566
diffusion lengths 564, 613
diffusion 556, 565, 566, 594
edge diffusion 575
edge mobility 582
free energy 559
Ge 588
jump frequency
mean free path 564
migration 556
mobility 555, 561, 593, 594,
602, 609
nucleation 555
residence time 595
supply 569, 570, 575
surface mobility 602, 613
surface diffusion 556, 562,
565, 594, 597
thermodynamic description
558
TiN islands 581
Additives 100
Adhesion
cathodic arc coatings 506
CVD coating 323
enhancement 434
loss of 719
of deposits 323
on plastics 433
plasma treatment 344, 538
strength 738
test 738, 731–734
Advanced elastic recoil detection
analysis (ARDA) 798
differences from RBS 797
multielement stoichiometry
800
strengths and limitations 800
ALD (see Atomic layer deposition)
Alkaline cleaners 100
Al
2
O
3
coatings 193, 199, 207, 239,
243, 431, 593, 631
Al deposition
ion plating 310
oxide 428
Alloys
advantages of 697
binary and ternary 697
by JVD 885
with MoS
2
and WS
2
697
Ambipolar diffusion 53
Analysis
compositional 755
surface 752
Analytical techniques
elemental and structural 752
Angle of incidence 624
Annealing 644
Anti-friction coatings 693
Anti-wear coatings 693
Anti-oxidation coatings 693
Application of fluids 107
immersion 107
spraying 107
vapor condensation 108
Applications
of ALD 381
of atmospheric plasma 876
of cathodic arc coatings
514
of coatings 15
of CVD 362
of GLAD coatings 660
of JVD 892
of ion plating 310
of PECVD 396
of superhard coatings 693
of volume reactions 71
of VPD coatings 546
Arc
definition 174
deposition 304
evaporation 174
modes 469
plasma sources 489
PVD 687
random arc source 490
vaporization 305, 306
Arched field geometry 492
ARE 198
arc evaporation 174, 203
BARE 203
ECR excitation 205
electron-beam-heated 200,
203
enhanced 201
modifications of 200
plasma electron-beam 202
pulsed laser beams 204
Copyright © 2010 Peter M. Martin. Published by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.
902
Index 903
reactive ion plating 203
resistance heated 201
triode 203
Arc PVD 684, 687
ARE process
low pressure plasma 202
materials 207
mechanism 206
modifications of 201
new approaches 204
process parameters 200, 206
thermodynamic and kinetic
considerations 199
types 198
using an arc evaporation
source 205
variants of 200, 202
Atmospheric pressure plasma
definition 866
Atom probe
microscopy/tomography
(APT) 855
atom probe microscope
856
Atomic layer deposition (ALD)
advantages 366
ALD cycle 365
applications 381
conformality 366
functional and protective
coatings 385
industrial systems 372
integrated circuits 383
materials 375
optical components 387
photovoltaics 385
precursors 375–379
processes 375
scalability 373
Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
850
atomic force microscope 735,
853
AFM tip 852
imaging modes 853
intermittent contact imaging
853
measurement of interaction
forces 853
schematic of instrument 851
strengths and limitations 854
Atomic peening 726
Atomization 537
Auger electron spectroscopy (AES)
816
atomic concentration 820
Auger process 817
Auger spectrometer 819
Auger spectrum 819
kinetic energy of 817
sensitivity 821
strengths and limitations 822
surface sensitivity 818
Auger process 756, 817
Auger spectrometer 819
2D maps of elemental
distribution 821
atomic concentration 820
charging problems 822
sensitivity 821
Auger transition 756, 816
B
Backscattering 291
Barrier layer
ALD 382
VPD 18, 548
Behavioral properties
characterization of 719
Bias
sputtering 278
substrate 275
Biased activated reactive
evaporation (BARE) 202
Binding energy
of emitted photoelectrons 756
Biomedical uses of coatings 18
Blow-off 111, 116
Bombardment
Ar
+
604
by electrons 80
by energetic species 73, 105,
261, 300
continuous 302
concurrent 299
during deposition 80, 299, 300,
412
effects 299
near surface and surface
299
on adhesion 300
on film growth 300
on properties of deposited
material 300
by high energy neutrals
305
in sputtering process
261
ion 73, 75
sources of 299
Boundary layer
gas stream 317
mass transport across 335,
339–340
thickness of 336, 342
Brittleness
oxides 701
C
Capillarity model 562
Carbon
based coatings 423
nanostructured carbon-derived
carbon films 705
nanotube 360
Carbonaceous coatings 456
Carburizing 320
Carrier gas 327
flow patterns 334
boundary layers 337
mass transport 341
Cascade
electron 818
step 72
Catalysis
GLAD 667
Cathode
current efficiency (CCE)
dark space 61
hollow 304
plasmas
density 481
processes
fractal 480
poisoning
processes 468
work function 471
Cathodic arc
decorative coatings 511
filtered
ta-C coatings 514
optical films 516
MAX phases 518
904 Index
metal films 515
transparent conductive
oxides 517
generation 468
in ion plating 304
modes 469
potential distribution 471
unfiltered 508
Cathodic
plasma 481
density 481
ion charge state 482
velocity 483
velocity distribution
486–488
Characterization
categories 719
in-situ 720
of thin films and coatings
advantages 717
disadvantages 717
mechanical 416
corrosion resistance 416
of PECVD coatings 415,
436
organizations 723
property measurements 719
strategy 722
Characterization methods for thin
films 752
Chemical
cause of adhesion loss 324
etch rate measurement 745
functionalization 645
potential 320
pumps 329
vapor deposition CVD
wet etching 97
Chemical vapor deposition
adhesion 323
DLC 688
exchange reactions 318
coupled reactions 319
disproportionation reactions
319
free energy 322
nanocomposite films 685
process family of 315
reaction zones 316
reduction reaction 319
selective
absorption-induced
selective growth
deposition 353
phase selective deposition
358
secondary processes
359
substrate activated growth
tungsten CVD 357
Thermal decomposition
reactions 317
Thermodynamics 320
Chemisorption
Reactive gas 283
Child-Langmuir law 51
Cleaners
Alkaline 100
Detergent 100
Cleaning
before plating 94
contact 112
for CVD substrates 324
in situ 124, 131
monitoring of process 117
processes 95
reactive gas 103
reactive plasma 104
solvent 98
sputter 125
Cleaning Tests
adsorption and desorption
behavior 118
analytical spectroscopies
contact angle 118
friction and marking 119
nucleation 118
sheeting 118
Wet reaction 97, 101
Cluster
Au 560, 563
coalescence 566
critical size 558, 559, 567,
579
density 566
free energy 562
growth 555, 564
loss due to coalescence 566
“magic” 568
Si and Ge 562
size distribution 567
stable 555, 577
surface area 562
thermodynamic formulation
586
Coalescence
three dimensional 569
two dimensional 574
Coatings
advantages and disadvantages
717
characterization of 718
Co-deposition
GLAD 641
Coefficient of thermal expansion
738
Coevaporation processes 148
Cold atmospheric plasma
applications 876
arcing 874
breakdown regimes 874
by products 875
characteristic features
873–876
coating regimes 877
dimensions 875
examples 871
jet plasma source 872
hybrid source 872
ion energies 875
reactive interaction 876
simple microwave source 872
sources 869
typical applications 873
Cold cathode discharge 60
Cold hollow cathode beam gun 170
Column
nucleation 625
tilt angle 625
Compound mode 285
Corona discharge 263
Corrosion resistant coating
Polymer multilayer 552
Cubic boron nitride films 426
D
Dark discharge regime 263
DC arc plasma source 489
DC breakdown 868
Paschen function 868
Decorative and functional coatings
16
by unfiltered cathodic arc 511
Index 905
Defects
PVD processes 224–227
residual 604
Density
JVD films 889
measurement of 741
modification 644
Deposition process
control 177
criteria 22
definitions 23
nanocomposite coatings 682
parameters 684
rate monitor 177–180
Depth profiling
by -Raman spectroscopy 772
Detergent cleaners 100
Diamond films
nanocrystalline 704
Diamond-like carbon (DLC) films
423
nanostructured films 704, 707
Diffusion
ambipolar in plasmas 53
hydrogen 731
type interface 725
water vapor
Discharge
cold cathode 60
Magnetron 62, 83, 272
I-V characteristics
Plasmas 55
RF 63
Voltage 272
Displays
ALD 381
Drying 115
fluid 115
mechanical 115
blow-off 116
thermal 116
Dual beam FIB/SEM for thin film
analysis 806
3D microstructure analysis 807
EBSD map of YSZ 809
ion beam induced imaging 810
layout 811
strengths and limitations 811
E
EBSD 825
EELS, electron energy loss
spectroscopy 827–831
energy loss near edge structure
(ELNES) 830
extended electron energy loss
fine structure (EXELFS)
831
chemical composition 830
Electrochormic device 446
Electrical breakdown of gas at high
pressures 869
cold atmospheric plasma 869
Electrical breakdown of gas at
reduced pressures 867
DC breakdown 868
Townsend discharge 867
transistion to filamentary
discharge 867
Electrical resistivity 740
Electromigration 741
Electron
collision frequencies of 40
EEDF 399, 400
energy distribution of 38,
399
electron energy distribution
function 400, 401
emission 470
kinetic energy of 37
Electron beam evaporation
Flux profile 139
Ion plating 140
Electron diffraction 838, 844
Ellispometry 777
description of 777
strengths and limitations 779
thickness measurement 778
Emission
center 473
explosive 475
random motion 477
stages of 474
thermionic 474
Energy
distribution of sputtered atoms
259
of particles impinging on
substrate 402
Energy applications
charge storage 669
fuel cells 669
Energy dispersive x-ray
spectrometry (EDXS)
824
Engineered materials 4
Epitaxial growth
CVD 353
GaAs 354
Erosion resistance 799
Etching
wet chemical 97
Evaporation
activated reactive (ARE) 9,
198, 200, 203
mechanism 206
arc 174
direct 193
electron beam 139
materials synthesized by 207
mechanisms 151
process control
thickness 180
rate 182
reactive 193
Sources
cold hollow cathode beam
guns 170
electron beam-heated
167
hot hollow cathode
discharge beam 173
induction heated 167
plasma electron beam
170
resistance-heated 158
single rod-fed electron
beam 184
sublimation 163
support materials 159
temperatures 159
thermionic guns 168
Source materials 165
System
vacuum chamber 155
pumping system
pressure measurement
157
theory 151
Evaporation processes
metals and elemental
semiconductors 182
intermetallic compounds 187
906 Index
refractor metal compounds 188
direct evaporation 193
multiple sources 182
Ex-situ surface modification 132
Ewald sphere 845
F
Film formation 723
Film growth
early 569
ion irradiation effects 602
kinetic descriptions 565
multiphase 599
nucleation 726
thermodynamic descriptions
558
three dimensional 569
island coalescence 570
two dimensional 573
Film-substrate boundary 687
Film thickness defined 734
contacting techniques 735
non-contacting techniques 735
Filtered cathodic arc deposition 12
First check characterization 720
First Townsend coefficient 868
Fluids
In cleaning processes 107
Fracture path 730
Fracture toughness 692
Free energy 321, 559
Friction coefficient 703
Fuel cells 669
Functional characterization 719
Functional coatings
by ALD 385
characteristics 394
optical
functional 437
interference filters 438
G
Gas
dispensing system 325
flow dynamics for CVD
reactor 320
flow patterns for CVD reactor
332
phase reaction rate in plasmas
42
metastable species and
processes in 70
Gas and water permeation barrier
18, 445
Glancing angle deposition GLAD 5,
9, 13
apparatus 629
applications of 622
basic structures 627
co-deposition 641
film nucleation 624
film density 626
ion assisted 642
materials 631
slanted posts 627
substrate
motion 630
motion control
638–640
motion algorithm 632
rotation 629
seeding 633–638
temperature control
642
templating 645
theory 623
vertical posts 627
Glancing incidence x-ray
diffraction 765
GLAD films 646
column
areal density 653
crystallinity 646
growth 648
interface width 652
width 649
organic materials 651
electrical properties 656
manufacturability 670
mechanical properties 654
optical 661
optical properties 656
surface area 653
stress 655
Glow discharge mass spectrometry
(GDMS) 805
depth profile 805
strengths and limitations 806
Glow discharge regime 264
Grain boundary
influence on column
morphology 648
migration 596
H
Hall-Petch relationship 690
Hard coatings
using filtered cathodic arc
514–519
using unfiltered cathodic arc
508–511
Hardness
definition 739
of alloy deposits 235
of dispersion-strengthened
alloy deposits 239
GLAD films 654
laminate composites 241
nanocomposite coatings 691,
695
refractory compounds 242
HfO
2
thin films
ALD processes 379
High energy ion scattering methods
794
RBS and channeling 794
RBS example 795
strengths and limitations
797
High power pulsed magnetron
HIPIMS
hybrid process 683
nanocomposite coatings
687
High pressure plasma
space-charge sheaths at high
gas pressures 871
suppression of streamers 870
HIPIMS 682
hybrid process 682
Hollow cathode
as electron source 305
electrode activated discharge
872
sputter jet source 891
Hot hollow cathode
discharge beam 173
HRTEM high resolution
transmission electron
microscopy 827
basic concept 829
Hybrid
cold plasma source 872
deposition process 682, 683
deposition system 405, 534
Index 907
HIPIMS and cathodic arc 682
hollow cathode electrode
activated discharge 872
nanostructured and
nanocomposites 690
Hydrogen
plasma 105
Hysteresis
circumventing 286
compound mode 285
reactive gas pressure 280
metal mode 285
model 280
I
Incident ion methods 786
ion scattering methods 786
LEIS spectroscopy 786
Incident photon methods 754
strengths and limitations 760
Inert gas condensation (IGC)
process 142
Infrared spectroscopy 774
applications 775
Fourier transform IR
spectroscopy (FTIR) 774
strengths and limitations 775
Inhomogeneous coatings 439
rugate filters 440
In-line cleaning system 113
Inorganic coatings 433
In-situ surface modification 131
Interface
formation 724
types 724
Ion
assisted GLAD 642
bombardment 73
-electron distribution function
409–413
irradiation effects on film
growth 602
high energy 605
low energy, high flux
606
preferred orientation 611
mixing 729
scrubbing 126
Ion plating
applications 310
barrel plating 307, 308
DC plasma conditions 304, 305
IAD 297
IBED 299
IVD 297
pulsed 307
reactive 307
sources 303
Ion scattering methods
energy loss and energy
straggling 789
important elements 787
scattering cross-section 789
scattering kinematics 788
Ion scrubbing 126
In-situ characterization 720
Integrated circuits
ALD films 383
Interaction
electron-atom in plasma 67
electron –molecule in plasma
68
photon 81
plasma-surface 73
Interface
engineering 432
Interphase
formation 434
Ion plating
flux distribution 140
barrel configuration 307, 308
J
Jet plasma source 872
Jet vapor deposition (JVD)
advantages 895
applications 892
batch deposition 887
generation and deposition of
atoms and clusters 893
electronic components 894
jet sources 882
layered compound 887
principles 882
solders 895
spin-scan deposition 889
substrate motion 885
JVD sources
hollow cathode sputter jet
source 891
wick jet capillary feed 892
wirefeed to hot filament 890
K
Kinetic descriptions of film growth
565
L
Liquid crystal
GLAD devices 664
Liquid multilayer process 543
Low dimensional structure 7
Low energy election diffraction
(LEED) 839
instrument configuration 839
strengths and limitations 842,
843
Low energy ion scattering (LEIS)
786, 790
energy range 790
strengths and limitations 792
M
Macroparticle 176
energy distribution 501
filtering 496, 497
generation 493
reduction 495
Magnetic field
particle motion in 45
Magnetron
deposition 267
discharge for deposition 83
hybrid process 683
planar 270
post 267–270
powering 277
radio frequency 277
rotating cylindrical 272
Magnet
balance 275
Magnetic
anisotropy 652
properties of PVD films 245
Magnetron sputtering
high power pulsed HPPMS 9,
279
nanocomposite coatings 685
pulsed DC magnetron 279
reactive 280
unbalanced 9
Mass transport
in vapor 340, 341
kinetics 343
908 Index
processes across boundary
layer 339
control 340
MAX phases
filtered cathodic arc 518
Mechanical properties
thin films 228
thick condensates and bulk
deposits 230
Mechanical devices 667
Mechanical properties
GLAD films 654
hardness 739
Mechanical removal 111
Medium energy ion scattering
(MEIS) 793
depth profiles 793
strengths and limitations 794
MEMS structures 515
Metal ion etching 507
Metal mode 285
Metal
based compound films 427
carbides 429
films, high quality 515
fluorides 380
mode 285
nitrides 429
oxides 427
Michelson interferometer 737
Microstructure
PVD condensates
Ag films 211
evolution of 208
energy of depositing
beam 220
structure zone models
212–221
sputter-deposited thin films
290
Microwave CVD
Ar-C
60
precursor 704
Ar-CH
4
precursor 704
Microwave plasma system 403
Monomer
atomization 537
cure 538
UV 538
Electron-beam 538
degassing 536
evaporator 535
Morphology
columnar growth 300
sputter-deposited thin films
291
MoS
2
/TiC/DLC 697
Multilayer coatings 546
gas barrier coatings 548
nanocomposite 703
ultrabarrier coating 548
unfiltered cathodic arc 511
Multicomponent coatings 698
N
Nanoclusters
by JVD 896
Nanocomposite 7
films 427, 429, 430, 679, 699
deposition parameters
684
filtered cathodic arc 518
high temperature adaptive
coatings 700
superhard films 430, 699
tribological 453
Nanocomposite coating
deposition processes for 682
design architectures 680
fracture toughness 692
hybrid deposition process 683
mechanical properties 689
MoS
2
self-lubricating 696
synthesis 685
tribological properties 689
WS
2
Nanolaminant coating 17, 551
by ALD 369
by unfiltered cathodic arc 511
Nanostructures
diamond and diamond-like
films 704
three-dimensional 614
Nanotube
Neutrals
bombarding particles 305
Niobium oxide films 428
Nitrides
by filtered cathodic arc 518
Nitriding 318
Non destructive evaluation 721
Non-equilibrium plasma
electrical breakdown of gas at
reduced pressures 867
generation of 867
Nuclear reaction analysis (NRA)
801
strengths and limitations 802
Nucleation
CVD processes 347–351
defect density 605
early stages of film growth 555
experiments in Cu 567
GLAD films 624
Stranski-Krastanow growth
583
thermodynamic description
558
three dimensional 569
two-dimensional 573
early growth 574
O
OLED
encapsulation 549
market for
Operational life tests 721
Optical components
by ALD 387
indices of GLAD films 658
waveguides 442
Optical films 516
chiral filters 661
engineered birefringence 661
Optical properties
GLAD films 656
Organic
thin films 4
Outgassing 116
outdiffusion 117
Oxides
ALD 375, 379, 382
intermediate by PECVD
420–423
metal 428
P
Particle
detection on smooth surface
120
detection on rough surface
120
growth processes 143
size 142
Index 909
sputtered 289
transport to substrate 289
Particulate
removal
mechanical 111
blow off 111
spraying 112
megasonic 112
contact cleaning 112
Passivation layer 382
PECVD
coatings
applications 436
characterization of 415
inorganic substrates 433
on plastics 433
diagnostic and monitoring
techniques 406
industrial scale up 446, 455
materials 414
oxides 420
macroparticle filter 496–498
plasma characteristics 408
processes in 399
reactors 402
low frequency 403
medium frequency 403
radio frequency 403
silicon based coatings 416
Peel test 733
Phase transformations in
crystalline, inorganic thin films
and coatings 771
Phonon diffraction 844
Photoluminescence spectroscopy
780
applications in thin film
materials
fluorescence detection 783
future directions 783
instrumentation 783
material properties 781
physical principle of 780
semiconductor materials
782
strengths and limitations
785
Photon
interactions 81
Photonic crystals
by GLAD 663
Photovoltaic
encapsulation 549
Physical vapor deposition PVD
basic steps of 10
techniques 9, 11
Photovoltaics 17
ALD 385
CVD 360
Pin holes
ALD coatings 369
Pin-on disk 703
Planar magnetron 270
Plasma
collision cross section 35–36
Adhesion 538
cathodic 481
conductivity and diffusion in
44
discharge
plasma 56
regimes 264
dual mode MW/RF systems
403
filter 497
gas phase reactions 399
microwave system 403
mobilities 43
oscillations 54
oxygen 104
PACVD 78
PAPVD 78
parameters 47
polymers 426
PVD processes
advantages 149
residual stresses 223
defects 224
plasma-surface
interactions 73, 105
polymer multilayer process
540
processing of materials 397,
870
production and breakdown 57
reaction rates 42
self bias 310
sheaths 48
treatment 538, 539
Plasma enhanced chemical vapor
deposition
attributes 395
functional coatings 393
applications of 396
plasma processing 395
Plasma Polymer Multilayer Process
540
Plasma-surface interactions 400,
441
Polycrystalline diamond films 425
Polycrystalline films
elemental 593
Monte Carlo simulation 595
structural evolution 592
structure-zone models 593
Polymer
deposition 534
extrusion process: liquid
multilayer process
plasma 425
surface morphology 542
thickness dependence
Porosity
characteristics 742
measurements 744
types 739
Post deposition
treatments 729
heat treating 729
Power
radio frequency magnetron 277
direct current magnetron 278
Precursors
ALD 375
non-metal 376
metal 377
novel 379
organometallic 378
CVD 317
microwave CVD 704
PECVD 405
Protective coatings
by ALD 385
by PECVD 450
Pulsed
laser deposition 145
combination with IGC
147
MW plasma
sources 493
Q
Quantum dot 7
Si/Ge 589
910 Index
Quantum well 7
layer structure of 7
R
Raman spectroscopy 769
applications 771
basic principle 769
corrosion studies 773
depth profiling 758
organic/polymer coatings and
corrosion science 772
phase transformations in
crystalline, inorganic thin
films and coatings 771
strengths and limitations 773,
778
Raman effect 769
Reaction
gas phase plasma 66
mechanisms in CVD 345–346
rate in plasmas 42
volume – applications 71
Reactive
deposition 302, 727
evaporation 193
magnetron sputter deposition
280
hysteresis of reactive gas
and discharge
voltage 280
Reactive gas cleaning 103
Reactive plasma cleaning 104
Reactor
cold wall 328
exhaust system 329
hot wall 327
Recontamination
ambient environment 121
handling 122
in deposition system 129
storage 123
active 124
passive 123
Reciprocal lattice and surface
crystallography 844
Miller indices 844
Reflection high energy electron
diffraction (RHEED) 841
instrument configuration
839
RHEED images 842
strengths and limitations 842,
843
Relative characterization 719
Removal of particulate
contamination 111
blow off 111
contact cleaning 112
mechanical removal 111
megasonic 112
spraying 112
Reynold’s number
laminar flow 333
Rinsing
cascade 113
ultrapure water 114
Rugate filters
by GLAD 628
S
Safety 107, 128
Scanning electron microscopy
EBSD 825
EDXS 825
energy dispersive x-ray
spectrometry (EDXS) 825
energy range 823
strengths and limitations 826
types of electrons and phonons
produced 823
Scanning probe microscopy 846
Scanning tunneling microscopy 847
control 848
energy level diagram 847
local density of states 849
spatial resolution 848
strengths and limitations 851
Scanning tunneling spectroscopy
850
Scratch test 733
Secondary ion mass spectrometry
(SIMS) 801
comparison with XPS and
AES 802
elemental/molecular mapping
802
strengths and limitations 804
surface mass spectra 802
Sensors
optical 665
electrical 666
mechanical 666
Silicon
based inorganic coatings
416
from silane 338
Silicon carbide
423
Silicon carbon nitride coatings 423
Silicon dioxide 417
fluorinated 419
Silicon nitride 419
Solar cell
GLAD 669
thin film 17, 444
Solid-film growth modes 556
Solution additives 100
Solvent
cleaning 98
chlorinated solvents 98
Space-charge sheaths at low and
high gas pressures 871
Sputter
yield 256
energy distribution 259
Sputter cleaning 125
Sputter depth profiles and thickness
measurements
cluster ion beams 812
composition profiles 811
film thickness 814
nominal thickness ranges 815
strengths and limitations 816
Sputtered particles 287
Sputtering
basic process 141
direct current 278
definition 255
radio frequency 277
Stability properties
characterization of 719
Stiffness
nanocomposite coatings 695
STM 724, 735
Stress
evolution 503–506
generation and relief 503
GLAD films 655
residual 223
types 736
Stripping 95
Structure zone model
evaporated films 212–219