Martienssen W., Warlimont H. (Eds.). Handbook of Condensed Matter and Materials Data

Подождите немного. Документ загружается.

1062 Part 5 Special Structures

(Co and Pt) were directed onto the substrate at either

normal or oblique (37

◦

from the normal) incidence

(Fig. 5.3-37) [3.123].

When the substrate consists of an array of silicon

pillars, the structural and magnetic properties obtained

with the two deposition modes are quite different, as

illustrated in Figs. 5.3-37 and 5.3-38 [3.123]. With nor-

mal deposition, a rough deposit made of Co, Pt, and

CoPt alloy grains is observed (Fig. 5.3-37a), which in-

duces a ferromagnetic coupling between adjacent dots

(Fig. 5.3-38a) via the sidewalls and the magnetic deposit

in the bottom of the trenches [3.122].

In contrast, when the Pt is deposited at oblique

incidence, one sidewall of the dots is coated with

antiferromagnetic CoO, whereas the other side con-

sists of a Pt-rich PtCo alloy, which is nonmagnetic

(Fig. 5.3-37b). In this latter case, no direct coupling be-

a) b)

75 nm

Fig. 5.3-37a,b Cross-sectional TEM views of dots pre-

pared by electron-beam lithography followed by Si RIE

and covering by (Pt/Co) multilayers. In

(a),bothCoand

Pt were deposited at normal incidence. In

(b),Cowasde-

posited at normal incidence, whereas Pt was deposited at

oblique incidence. The width of the dots in both cases is

75 nm. (From [3.123])

a) b)

Fig. 5.3-38a,b 8 µm MFM images of domain patterns in

arrays of (Pt/Co) dots deposited at normal incidence

(a),

and oblique incidence

(b). (Courtesy of B. Dieny)

tween the top of the dots and the bottom of the trenches

takes place, resulting on no direct ferromagnetic coup-

ling between adjacent dots. A checkerboard-like pattern

of single-domain dots with a perpendicular magne-

tization is observed (Fig. 5.3-38b) [3.122, 123, 126].

This second situation is favorable if one wishes to

use this type of array of dots as a discrete recording

medium.

Storing the Information on the Sidewalls of the Dots.

So far, the magnetic deposit on the top of the dots car-

ries the recorded information. An alternative method

would be to deposite the material on the sidewalls of the

dots. This can be achieved by performing a codeposition

of Cr at normal incidence and Co at oblique incidence.

Thereby, a nonmagnetic Cr-rich CoCr alloy forms on top

of the dots, whereas the sidewalls are coated with almost

pure magnetic Co. The information can be stored by set-

ting the magnetization of these “vertical nanomagnets”

to be up or down on the sidewalls.

Figure 5.3-39 compares the magnetic contrast meas-

ured by magnetic force microscopy (MFM) in two arrays

of dots of the same geometry, one coated on the top of

the dots with a (Pt/Co) multilayer, the other coated on

the sidewalls with Co. Clearly the stray ﬁelds are much

more localized and intense in the second case. It should

be pointed out that the sidewalls are not single-domain

here, but this can be ﬁxed by using materials with higher

coercivity (Co

alloys for instance). Another ad-

vantage of this approach is that two opposite sidewalls

can be used per dot, which allows one to double the areal

density for the same geometry.

Manipulating the Magnetization of Individual Dots.

Two techniques have been developed to manipulate the

magnetization of each dot individually. The ﬁrst one

is a thermomagnetic technique, which consists of us-

a) b)

Fig. 5.3-39a,b MFM domain patterns in as-deposited ar-

rays of 400 ×400 nm dots

(a) coated on the top by a (Pt/Co)

multilayer and

(b) coated on the sidewall by 5 nm thick Co

deposit. (Courtesy of B. Dieny)

Part 5 3.4

Mesoscopic and Nanostructured Materials 3.5 Preparation Techniques 1063

ing a conductive atomic force microscope (AFM) tip to

locally heat a given dot by passing a pulse of current be-

tween the tip and the dot [3.127]. The temperature rise

leads to a decrease in the switching ﬁeld of the mag-

netization of the addressed dot. Simultaneously, a static

ﬁeld of −200 Oe is applied to the whole sample. This

ﬁeld is large enough to switch the magnetization of the

heated dot in the desired direction but low enough not

to switch the magnetization of the other dots [3.123].

This is illustrated in Fig. 5.3-40. These experiments

are preliminary, but impressive and highly encouraging.

The main difﬁculty was irreproducibility in the contact

resistance.

A second technique has also been developed to

manipulate the magnetization of individual dots; this

technique is based on the use of write heads devel-

oped by Headway Inc. The array of dots is mounted

on a piezoelectric stage, which allows displacement of

the sample over an area of 120 µm ×120 µm. The head

is in contact with the surface of the sample. A write

current of 30 mA was used in the writer. An example

of controlled writing of a line of dots is shown in

Fig. 5.3-41 [3.123].

Fig. 5.3-41 4 µm×4µm MFM image of a line written on

an array of rectangular dots 100 nm ×200 nm in size with

an edge-to-edge spacing of 100 nm. The writing was per-

formed using a commercial inductive write head provided

by Headway Inc. (From [3.123])

Fig. 5.3-40 MFM images of an array of dots covered by a mul-

tilayer of composition Pt 20 nm/(Co 0.5nm/Pt 1.8 nm). The dots

are 400 nm in size, with an edge-to-edge spacing of 100 nm. A con-

trolled switching of individual dots has been achieved by passing

a pulse of current from a metallic AFM tip to the dot and simultane-

ously applying a uniform ﬁeld of −200 Oe over the whole sample.

(From [3.123])

5.3.5 Preparation Techniques

Various strategies have been developed for the manufac-

ture of nanostructured materials. They follow essentially

two approaches:

•

The top-down manufacturing paradigm is that of the

existing electronic technologies. It consists in down-

scaling the pattern size in lithographically structured

materials.

•

The bottom-up paradigm of nanosciences consists

in the fabrication of atomically precise struc-

tures of increasing size, up to the mesoscopic

scale.

Many preparation techniques are very speciﬁc to one

particular type of material: for instance, many different

chemical and physical techniques are used to produce

porous silicon. Hence, we list and brieﬂy describe below

only the most common and generic methods for the

synthesis and fabrication of nanostructured materials.

For a more detailed, recent, comprehensive description

and discussion of the following production techniques,

see [3.5,128].

5.3.5.1 Molecular-Beam Epitaxy

2-D Structures

An atomic or molecular beamof Ga, As, Al, and/or other

elements is created thermally in a ultrahigh-vacuum

chamber and directed at a speciﬁc, well-deﬁned, atom-

ically ﬂat facet of a single-crystal substrate. A very low

deposition rate, associated with a precisely controlled

substrate temperature and various real-time techniques

for monitoring the state of the surface, permit one to

ﬁnd growth conditions that preserve a coherent crys-

talline order or minimize the density of structural

Part 5 3.5

1064 Part 5 Special Structures

defects. Because of the atomic layer-by-layer depos-

ition, MBE is the technique that allows the best control

over the thickness of a 2-D ﬁlm down to the sub-

atomic level. This has motivated a huge number of

research studies on the mechanism of MBE growth.

MBE is used when the highest thickness accuracy,

abrupt interfaces, the highest purity, and/or the lowest

density of surface defects is needed. Its main appli-

cations are for semiconductor quantum wells, since

the band gap of Al

1−x

As can be tuned continu-

ously through the composition x of the ternary alloy

without inducing too large a lattice mismatch (see

e.g. [3.32]).

1-D Structures

Quantum wires are less commonly encountered, since

their fabrication procedures are even more complicated:

one method exploits the step-ﬂow growth of vicinal

surfaces [3.129].

Self-assembly in speciﬁc MBE-type situations leads

to the formation of wire structures. Thus, straight atomic

lines of Si have been grown on a β-SiC(100) sur-

face [3.130].

0-D Structures

MBE was primarily designed for the growth of 2-D

nanostructures. However, it has been observed that

the combination of two lattice-mismatched materials

can lead to the formation of self-assembled size-

monodispersed clusters or dots during growth in the

Stranski–Krastanov (SK) mode. The most studied

system is that of InAs deposited on a GaAs(100)

substrate [3.131]. In that case, the lattice mismatch

is 7%, and the nanocluster size is 20 nm ±10%.

The average nanocluster size and density are tun-

able over a narrow range through the choice of

growth parameters. Moreover, various cluster shapes

are obtained with different substrate faces. More com-

plicated systems have been produced, such as 2-D

core–shell magnetic dots [3.132]. Finally, the use

of a high-index substrate (such as GaAs(311)) can

lead to a lateral ordering of the nanocluster distribu-

tion [3.133].

Clusters of various metals can be formed by use of

a dewetting (Vollmer–Weber) type of epitaxial growth;

this has been done mainly on highly oriented pyrolytic

graphite (HOPG). Formation of 3-D islands has been

reported for Cu, Ag, Au [3.134], Pt [3.135], Co [3.136],

Mo, [3.137], and Pd [3.138].

In some speciﬁc situations, a 3-D stacking of quan-

tum dot layers has been achieved [3.139].

5.3.5.2 Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor

Deposition (MOCVD)

This type of growth takes place in a reaction cham-

ber in which the substrate is heated to a very high

temperature (500

◦

C to 1000

◦

C). A combination of

metal-organic and metal hydride vapors (e.g. triethyl-

gallium, Ga(C

)

, and arsine, AsH

, for GaAs

formation) is then brought into contact with the sub-

strate by use of a laminar ﬂow of a carrier gas (typically

or H

). The desired atoms aredeposited layer by layer

through a chemical reaction taking place at the substrate

surface. MOCVD can be adapted to large-scale, long,

continuous runs. Today, it is thus the most conventional

industrial manufacturing technique for semiconductor

heterostructures.

5.3.5.3 Lithography

The lateral patterning in large-scale integrated electronic

circuits is produced by projection photolithography.

The resolution is limited not by the resists themselves

but by optical diffraction during exposure, the mini-

mum line spacing being of the order of λ/NA, where

λ is the wavelength and NA the numerical aperture

of the projection system. Today, the deep-UV tech-

nology is used; this is based on ArF excimer laser

sources (λ =193 nm), the numerical aperture is of the

order of 0.8, and image enhancement techniques such

as phase-shift masks are used [3.140]. This technique

achieves typical line spacings close to 100 nm. To

achieve higher resolution, alternative radiation sources

and/or exposure techniques have been used and are

summarized in Table 5.3-3.

5.3.5.4 Nanocrystals in Matrices

Diffusion-Controlled Growth

The growth of clusters from ions dissolved in a glass

can be kinetically controlled by tuning the tem-

perature between the glass transition temperature

and the melting temperature. Empirical methods for

the growth of metal clusters for use in stained-

glass windows have been known for centuries. This

technique is now mainly used for the fabrication

of color cutoff ﬁlters using II–VI compounds. The

main compound used is CdS

1−x

, and such ﬁl-

ters are made by Schott in Germany, Corning in the

USA, and Hoya in Japan. It is also used for pho-

tochromic glasses based on I–VII compounds (mainly

AgBr).

Part 5 3.5

Mesoscopic and Nanostructured Materials 3.5 Preparation Techniques 1065

Table 5.3-3 Radiation sources and exposure techniques for higher resolution

Radiation source Energy

Deep UV 6.4eV

X-rays 2 keV

Electrons 20 keV

Ions 100 keV

Exposure techniques Comments

Contact printing The resolution is the limited by the optical skin depth of the mask material.

Proximity printing The resolution is limited by diffraction, with a minimum line spacing of

√

gλ,

where g is the mask–surface distance. Proximity printing techniques have been

used mainly in conjunction with X-ray radiation sources.

Nanoimprinting A master stamp is used directly for hot embossing of a substrate, usually made

of a polymer. This allows the stamp to produce many patterned substrates.

Although there is no diffraction limit here, hot embossing has been applied

mainly for low-resolution applications, in various ﬁelds such as miniaturized

total-analysis Systems (µTAS), microﬂuidics, and microoptics.

UV–nanoimprint lithography corresponds to contact printing with UV ex-

posure.

Scanned-source techniques

Electron and ion beams Scanning electron beam lithography is the most widely used technique for

nanostructuring surfaces beyond the optical resolution limit. The resist used

is polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA).

Near-ﬁeld scanning optical

microscope (NSOM)

This is the scanned-source equivalent of contact and proximity printing.

Scanning tunneling micro-

scope (STM)

In contrast to electron-beam lithography, the mechanism of STM lithography

is generally an inelastic electron tunneling process, with energy quanta of an

electron volt. STM can also be used for single-atom or single-molecule manip-

ulations for the fabrication of individual nanostructures.

Sol–Gel Synthesis

Cold chemical synthesis of nanoporous glasses by the

sol–gel technique allows the embedding of temperature-

sensitive clusters such as organic nanocrystals. More-

over, it often permits one to achieve larger densities of

semiconductor nanocrystals than in diffusion-controlled

growth.

Zeolites

Zeolites constitute a group of hydrated crystalline alumi-

nosilicates containing regularly shaped pores with sizes

from 1 nm to several nanometers. This provides them

with the ability to reversibly adsorb and desorb spe-

ciﬁc molecules. Chemical synthesis of semiconductors

inside such pores permits the fabrication of regularly dis-

tributed, highly size-monodispersed nanocrystal arrays.

This has been applied to CdS, PbI

, and Ge.

5.3.5.5 Ex Situ Synthesis of Clusters

As an alternative to in situ growth, nanocrystals can be

synthesized either in solution (e.g. by colloidal synthe-

sis) or in the gas phase, prior to dispersion in a matrix

or deposition or self-assembly onto a substrate.

Colloidal Synthesis

Although gold colloids were known and studied very

early [3.2], the synthesis technique has been much stud-

ied and greatly improved during the past few decades.

The two-phase approach permits the fabrication of thiol-

covered noble-metal nanoparticles [3.141]. The thiol

layer prevents coalescence of the metal particles, thus

stabilizing the colloid and preserving the size distri-

bution. Motivated by the self-ordering properties of

layers of nanoparticles with a narrow size distribution,

Part 5 3.5

1066 Part 5 Special Structures

50 nm

Fig. 5.3-42 TEM image showing a superlattice of

thiol-passivated Au clusters with a bimodal size dis-

tribution (∼ 4.5and7.8 nm diameter). The 2-D supra-

crystallization shows a regular self-organized bimodal

packing. (After 3.144)

researchers have developed various size-selection tech-

niques [3.142, 143]. As shown in Fig. 5.3-42, relatively

complex self-organized structures are now achievable

through self-assembly of size-selected thiol-capped

nanoparticles obtained from colloidal synthesis [3.144],

including mixtures of particles of different chemical

nature (Au and Ag, [3.145]).

This technique has been extended to transition met-

als. 6 nm trioctylphosphine-coated Co particles have

been synthesized using a reverse-micelle approach

and assembled as a hexagonal self-organized superlat-

tice [3.146]. 3-D self-assembled superlattices of FePt

nanoparticles have also been produced [3.121].

Ligand-stabilization techniques have led to macro-

molecular complexes consisting of a metal core

containing a ﬁxed number of atoms surrounded

by a precise number of organic ligand molecules.

Following the synthesis of Au

(P(C

)

clus-

ters [3.147], a number of such macromolecules of

various sizes and compositions have been studied, such

as giant ligand-stabilized clusters containing 561 Pd

atoms [3.148].

Variations of the colloidal-synthesis and size selec-

tion techniques have also been developed in parallel

for the preparation of semiconductor nanoparticles,

particularly II–VI compounds such as CdSe [3.149],

from which self-assembled superlattices can be

grown [3.150]. GaAs nanocrystals have been produced

similarly [3.151].

Gas-Phase Production

Several techniques have been applied for the produc-

tion of “preformed” clusters in the gas phase, prior to

their deposition onto a substrate. The low-energy clus-

ter beam deposition technique was developed especially

for the deposition of small clusters of transition metals

(Ni, Fe, Co, etc.) [3.152]. An extensive review of this

vast subject can be found in [3.153].

References

3.1 M. Jos

e-Yacaman, L. Rendon, J. Arenas, M. C. S.

Puche: Maya blue paint: An ancient nanostructured

material, Science 273, 223–225 (1996)

3.2 M. Faraday: Experimental relations of gold (and

other metals) to light, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. 147, 145–181

(1857)

3.3 R. Dingle, W. Wiegmann, C. H. Henry: Quan-

tum states of conﬁned carriers in very thin

1−x

−

GaAs

−

1−x

As heterostructures, Phys.

Rev. Lett. 33, 827–830 (1974)

3.4 B. Bhushan (Ed.): Springer Handbook of Nanotech-

nology (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg 2004)

3.5 P. Moriarty: Nanostructured materials, Rep. Prog.

Phys. 64, 297–381 (2001)

3.6 M. Milun, P. Pervan, D. P. Woodruff: Quantum

well structures in thin metal ﬁlms: Simple model

physics in reality?, Rep. Prog. Phys. 65, 99–141

(2002)

3.7 S. A. Lindgren, S. Valden: Electron-energy-band de-

termination by photoemission from overlayer states,

Phys. Rev. Lett. 61, 2894–2897 (1988)

3.8 T. Miller, A. Samsavar, G. E. Franklin, T.-C. Chiang:

Quantum-well states in a metallic system: Ag on

Au(111), Phys. Rev. Lett. 61, 1404–1407 (1988)

3.9 S. Bjornholm, J. Borggren, O. Echt, K. Hansen, J. Ped-

ersen, H. D. Rasmussen: The inﬂuence of shells,

electron thermodynamics, and evaporation on the

abundance spectra of large sodium metal clusters,

Z. Phys. D 19, 47 (1991)

3.10 W. Ekardt: Work function of small metal par-

ticles: Self-consistent spherical jellium-background

model, Phys. Rev. B 29, 1558–1564 (1984)

3.11 J. H. Cho, K. S. Kim, C. T. Chan, Z. Y. Zhang: Oscillatory

energetics of ﬂat Ag ﬁlms on MgO(001), Phys. Rev. B

63, 113408 (2001)

3.12 J. J. Paggel, T. Miller, T. C. Chiang: Quantum-well

states as Fabry-Perot modes in a thin-ﬁlm electron

interferometer, Science 283, 1709–1711 (1999)

3.13 M. S. Hybertsen: Mechanism for light emission from

nanoscale silicon. In: Porous Silicon Science and

Technology, ed. by J.-C. Vial, J. Derrien (Les éditions

de physique, Les Ulis 1995) p. 67

Part 5 3

Mesoscopic and Nanostructured Materials References 1067

3.14 L. T. Canham: Silicon quantum wire array fabrica-

tion by electrochemical and chemical dissolution of

wafers, Appl. Phys. Lett. 57, 1046–1048 (1990)

3.15 V. Lehmann, U. Gösele: Porous silicon formation:

A quantum wire effect, Appl. Phys. Lett. 58, 856–

858 (1990)

3.16 A. I. Belogorokhov, V. A. Karavanskii, A. N. Obraztsov,

V. Y. Timoshenko: Intense photoluminescence in

porous gallium-phosphide, JETP Lett. 60, 274–279

(1994)

3.17 A. Anedda, A. Serpi, V. A. Karavanski, I. M. Tiginyanu,

V. M. Ichizli: Time-resolved blue and ultraviolet

photoluminescence in porous GaP, Appl. Phys. Lett.

67, 3316–3318 (1995)

3.18 J. S. Shor, L. Bemis, A. D. Kurtz, I. Grimberg,

B. Z. Weiss, M. F. Macmillian, W. J. Choyke: Char-

acterization of nanocrystallites in porous p-type

6H-SiC, J. Appl. Phys. 76, 4045–4049 (1994)

3.19 D. J. Lockwood, Z. H. Lu, J.-M. Baribeau: Quantum

conﬁned luminescence in Si/SiO

superlattices, Phys.

Rev. Lett. 76, 539–541 (1996)

3.20 R. W. Collins, P. M. Fauchet, I. Shimizu, J.-C. Vial,

T. Shimada, A. P. Alivisatos (Eds.): Advances in Mi-

crocrystalline and Nanocrystalline Semiconductors,

Vol. 452 (Materials Research Society, Pittsburgh 1997)

3.21 N. M. Park, T. S. Kim, S. J. Park: Band gap engi-

neering of amorphous silicon quantum dots for

light-emitting diodes, Appl. Phys. Lett. 78, 2575–

2577 (2001)

3.22 L. Pavesi, L. Dal Negro, C. Mazzoleni, G. Franzo,

F. Priolo: Optical gain in silicon nanocrystals, Nature

408, 440–444 (2000)

3.23 P. Ball: Let there be light, Nature 409, 974–976 (2001)

3.24 L. E. Brus: Electron–electron and electron–hole in-

teractions in small semiconductor crystallites: The

size dependence of the lowest excited electronic

state, J. Chem. Phys. 80, 4403–4409 (1984)

3.25 Y. Kayanuma: Quantum-size effects of interacting

electrons and holes in semiconductor microcrystals

with spherical shape, Phys. Rev. B 38, 9797–9805

(1988)

3.26 Al. L. Efros, A. L. Efros: Interband absorption of light

in a semiconductor sphere, Sov. Phys. Semicond. 16,

772–775 (1982)

3.27 A. Shik: Quantum Wells, Physics and Electronics of

Two-Dimensional Systems (World Scientiﬁc, Singa-

pore 1997) Chap. 4.4

3.28 S. Glutsch, D. S. Chemla: Transition to one-

dimensional behavior in the optical absorption of

quantum-well wires, Phys. Rev. B 53, 15902–15908

(1996)

3.29 D. J. Norris, A. Sacra, C. B. Murray, M. G. Bawendi:

Measurement of the size-dependent hole spectrum

in CdSe quantum dots, Phys. Rev. Lett. 72, 2612–2615

(1994)

3.30 G. Banﬁ, V. Degiorgio: Neutron scattering inves-

tigation of the structure of semiconductor-doped

glasses, J. Appl. Phys. 74, 6925–6935 (1993)

3.31 M. H. Yukselici: Growth kinetics of CdSe nanopar-

ticles in glass, J. Phys.: Condens. Matter 14, 1153–1162

(2002)

3.32 C. Weisbuch, B. Vinter: Quantum Semiconductor

Structures (Academic Press, Boston 1991) Chap. 3

3.33 B. Zhao, A. Yariv: Quantum well semiconductor

lasers. In: Semiconductor Lasers I: Fundamentals,

ed. by E. Kapon, P. L. Kelley (Academic Press, San

Diego 1999) Chap. 1

3.34 E. Kapon: Quantum wire and quantum dot lasers.

In: Semiconductor Lasers I: Fundamentals,ed.by

E. Kapon, P. L. Kelley (Academic Press, San Diego

1999) Chap. 4

3.35 V. I. Klimov, A. A. Mikhailovsky, S. Xu, A. Malko,

J. A. Hollingsworth, C. A. Leatherdale, H. J. Eisler,

M. G. Bawendi: Optical gain and stimulated emission

in nanocrystal quantum dots, Science 290, 314–317

(2000)

3.36 H. J. Eisler, V. C. Sundar, M. G. Bawendi, M. Walsh,

H. I. Smith, V. Klimov: Color-selective semiconductor

nanocrystal laser, Appl. Phys. Lett. 80, 4614–4616

(2002)

3.37 P. T. Guerreiro, S. Ten, N. F. Borrelli, J. Butty, G. E.

Jabbour, N. Peyghambarian: PbS quantum-dot

doped glasses as saturable absorbers for mode lock-

ing of a Cr:forsterite laser, Appl. Phys. Lett. 71,

1595–1597 (1997)

3.38 K. Wundke, S. Potting, J. Auxier, A. Schulzgen,

N. Peyghambarian, N. F. Borrelli: PbS quantum-dot-

doped glasses for ultrashort-pulse generation, Appl.

Phys. Lett. 76, 10–12 (2000)

3.39 S. Schmitt-Rink, D. S. Chemla, D. A. B. Miller: Linear

and nonlinear optical properties of semiconductor

quantum wells, Adv. Phys. 38, 89–188 (1989)

3.40 F. Devaux, F. Dorgeuille, A. Ougazzaden, F. Huet,

M. Carre, A. Carenco, M. Henry, Y. Sorel,

J.-F. Kerdiles, E. Jeanney: 20 Gbit/s operation

of a high-efﬁciency InGaAsP/InGaAsP MQW elec-

troabsorption modulator with 1.2-V drive volt-

age, IEEE Photonics Tech. Lett. 5, 1288–1990

(1993)

3.41 D. Delprat, A. Ramdane, A. Ougazzaden, H. Naka-

jima, M. Carre: Integrated multiquantum well

distributed feedback laser-electroabsorption mod-

ulator with a negative chirp for zero bias voltage,

Electron. Lett. 33, 53–55 (1997)

3.42 T. D. Krauss, F. W. Wise: Coherent acoustic phonons

in a semiconductor quantum dot, Phys. Rev. Lett.

79, 5102–5105 (1997)

3.43 D. Donovan, J. F. Andress: Lattice Vibrations (Chap-

man and Hall, London 1971)

3.44 J. F. DiTusa, K. Lin, M. Park, M. S. Isaacson,

J. M. Parpia: Role of phonon dimensionality on

electron–phonon scattering rates, Phys. Rev. Lett.

68, 1156–1159 (1992)

3.45 S.H.Song,W.Pan,D.C.Tsui,Y.H.Xie,D.Mon-

roe: Energy relaxation of two-dimensional carriers

in strained Ge/Si

0.4

0.6

and Si/Si

0.7

0.3

quan-

Part 5 3

1068 Part 5 Special Structures

tum wells: Evidence for two-dimensional acoustic

phonons, Appl. Phys. Lett. 70, 3422–3424 (1997)

3.46 V. Narayanamurti, H. L. Störmer, M. A. Chin,

A. C. Gossard, W. Wiegmann: Selective transmission

of high-frequency phonons by a superlattice: The

dielectric phonon ﬁlter, Phys. Rev. Lett. 43, 2012–

2016 (1979)

3.47 P. V. Santos, L. Ley, J. Mebert, O. Koblinger: Fre-

quency gaps for acoustic phonons in a-Si:H/a-SiN

superlattices, Phys. Rev. B 36, 4858–4867 (1987)

3.48 M. Fujii, T. Nagareda, S. Hayashi, K. Yamamoto:

Low-frequency Raman scattering from small silver

particles embedded in SiO

thin ﬁlms, Phys. Rev. B

44, 6243–6248 (1991)

3.49 L.Saviot,B.Champagnon,E.Duval,A.I.Eki-

mov: Size-selective resonant Raman scattering in

CdS doped glasses, Phys. Rev. B 57, 341–346

(1998)

3.50 H. Lamb: On the vibrations of an elastic sphere, Proc.

Math. Soc. London 13, 187 (1882)

3.51 S. Rufo, M. Dutta, M. A. Stroscio: Acoustic modes in

free and embedded quantum dots, J. Appl. Phys. 93,

2900–2905 (2003)

3.52 N. Del Fatti, C. Voisin, F. Chevy, F. Vallee, C. Flytzanis:

Coherent acoustic mode oscillation and damping in

silver nanoparticles, J. Chem. Phys. 110, 11484–11487

(1999)

3.53 M. Ikezawa, T. Okuno, Y. Masumoto, A. A. Lipovskii:

Complementary detection of conﬁned acoustic

phonons in quantum dots by coherent phonon

measurement and Raman scattering, Phys. Rev. B

64, 201315 (2001)

3.54 A. Arbouet, C. Voisin, D. Christoﬁlos, P. Langot, N. Del

Fatti, F. Vallee, J. Lerme, G. Celep, E. Cottancin,

M. Gaudry, M. Pellarin, M. Broyer, M. Maillard,

M.-P. Pileni, M. A. Treguer: Electron–phonon scat-

tering in metal clusters, Phys. Rev. Lett. 90, 177401

(2003)

3.55 S. Schmitt-Rink, D. A. B. Miller, D. S. Chemla: The-

ory of the linear and nonlinear optical properties

of semiconductor microcrystallites, Phys. Rev. B 35,

8113–8125 (1987)

3.56 D. Kovalev, H. Heckler, M. Ben-Chorin, G. Polisski,

M. Schwartzkopff, F. Koch: Breakdown of the

k-conservation rule in Si nanocrystals, Phys. Rev.

Lett. 81, 2803–2806 (1998)

3.57 M. S. Hybertsen: Absorption and emission of light

in nanoscale silicon structures, Phys. Rev. Lett. 72,

1514–1517 (1994)

3.58 N. F. Mott: Conduction in non-crystalline mater-

ials III. Localized states in a pseudogap and near

extremities of conduction and valence bands, Phi-

los. Mag. 19, 835–852 (1969)

3.59 B. F. Levine: Quantum-well infrared photodetectors,

J. Appl. Phys. 74, R1–81 (1993)

3.60 L. Esaki, R. Tsu: Superlattice and negative differ-

ential conductivity in semiconductors, IBM J. Res.

Devel. 14, 61–65 (1970)

3.61 L. Esaki, L. L. Chang: New transport phenomenon in

a semiconductor superlattice, Phys. Rev. Lett. 33,

495–498 (1974)

3.62 K. K. Choi, B. F. Levine, R. J. Malik, J. Walker,

C. G. Bethea: Periodic negative conductance by se-

quential resonant tunneling through an expanding

high-ﬁeld superlattice domain, Phys. Rev. B 35,

4172–4175 (1987)

3.63 N. F. Mott: Conduction in Non-Crystalline Materials,

Oxford Science Publications, 2nd edn. (Clarendon,

Oxford 1993)

3.64 P. Sheng, J. Klafter: Hopping conductivity in granu-

lar disordered systems, Phys. Rev. B 27, 2583–2586

(1983)

3.65 R. P. Andres, T. Bein, M. Dorogi, S. Feng, J. I. Hen-

derson, C. P. Kubiak, W. Mahoney, R. G. Osifchin,

R. Reifenberger: Coulomb staircase at room tem-

perature in a self-assembled molecular nanostruc-

ture, Science 272, 1323–1325 (1996)

3.66 M. A. Kastner: The single-electron transistor, Rev.

Mod. Phys. 64, 849–858 (1992)

3.67 A. L. Efros, B. I. Shklovskii: Coulomb gap and low-

temperature conductivity of disordered systems,

J. Phys. C: Solid State Phys. 8, L49–51 (1975)

3.68 M. Fujii, T. Kita, S. Hayashi, K. Yamamoto: Current-

transport properties of Ag

−

SiO

and Au

−

SiO

composite ﬁlms: Observation of single-electron

tunnelling and random telegraph signals, J. Phys.:

Condens. Matter 9, 8669–8677 (1997)

3.69 P. E. Trudeau, A. Escorcia, A. A. Dhirani: Variable

single electron charging energies and percolation

effects in molecularly linked nanoparticle ﬁlms,

J. Chem. Phys. 119, 5267–5273 (2003)

3.70 A. Taleb, F. Silly, A. O. Gusev, F. Charra, M.-P. Pileni:

Electron transport properties of nanocrystals: Iso-

lated, and “supra”-crystalline phases, Adv. Mater.

12, 633–637 (2000)

3.71 J. Fick, A. Martucci, M. Guglielmi, J. Shell: Nonlinear

optical properties of semiconductor-doped sol–gel

waveguides, Fiber Integrated Opt. 19, 43–56 (2000)

3.72 U. Kreibig, M. Vollmer: Optical Properties of Metal

Clusters (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg 1995) p. 50

3.73 K. Kolwas, S. Demianiuk, M. Kolwas: Optical exci-

tation of radius-dependent plamon resonances in

large metal clusters, J. Phys. B 29, 4761–4770 (1996)

3.74 S. Link, Z. L. Wang, M. A. El-Sayed: Alloy formation

on gold–silver nanoparticles and the dependence

of the plasmon absorption on their composition,

J. Phys. Chem. B 103, 3529–3533 (1999)

3.75 F. Hache, D. Ricard, C. Flytzanis: Optical nonlineari-

ties of small metal nanoperticles: Surface-mediated

resonance and quantum size effects, J. Opt. Soc.

Am. B 3, 1647–1655 (1986)

3.76 R. Elghanian, J. J. Storhoff, R. C. Mucic, R. L. Letsinger,

C. A. Mirkin: Selective colorimetric detection of

polynucleotides based on the distance-dependent

optical properties of gold nanoparticles, Science 277,

1078–1081 (1997)

Part 5 3

Mesoscopic and Nanostructured Materials References 1069

3.77 J. A. Creighton, D. G. Eadon: Ultraviolet-visible spec-

tra of the colloidal metallic elements, J. Chem. Soc.

Faraday Trans. 87, 3881–3891 (1991)

3.78 P. E. Batson: Surface plasmon coupling in clusters of

small spheres, Phys. Rev. Lett. 49, 936–940 (1982)

3.79 J. R. Krenn, A. Dereux, J. C. Weeber, E. Bourillot,

Y. Lacroute, J. P. Goudonnet, G. Schider, W. Gotschy,

A. Leitner, F. R. Aussenegg, C. Girard: Squeezing

the optical near-ﬁeld zone by plasmon coupling of

metallic nanoparticles, Phys. Rev. Lett. 82,2590–

2593 (1999)

3.80 F. Silly, A. O. Gusev, A. Taleb, F. Charra, M. P. Pileni:

Coupled plasmon modes in an ordered hex-

agonal monolayer of metal nanoparticles: A di-

rect observation, Phys. Rev. Lett. 84, 5840–5843

(2000)

3.81 S. A. Maier, M. L. Brongersma, P. G. Kik, S. Meltzer,

A. A. G. Requicha, H. A. Atwater: Plasmonics –

a route to nanoscale optical devices, Adv. Mater.

13, 15 (2001)

3.82 R. Mayoral, J. Requena, J. S. Moya, C. Lopez,

A. Cintas, H. Miguez, F. Meseguer, L. Vazquez,

M. Holgado, A. Blanco: 3D long-range ordering in an

SiO

submicrometer-sphere sintered superstructure,

Adv. Mater. 9, 257–260 (1997)

3.83 J. V. Sanders: Colour of precious opal, Nature 204,

1151–1153 (1964)

3.84 E. Yablonovitch: Inhibited spontaneous emission in

solid-state physics and electronics, Phys. Rev. Lett.

58, 2059–2062 (1987)

3.85 S. John: Strong localization of photons in certain

disordered dielectric superlattices, Phys. Rev. Lett.

58, 2486–2489 (1987)

3.86 M. N. Baibich, J. M. Broto, A. Fert, F. Nguyen

Van Dau, F. Petroff, P. Etienne, G. Creuzet,

A. Friederich, J. Chazelas: Giant magnetoresistance

of (001)Fe/(001)Cr magnetic superlattices, Phys. Rev.

Lett. 61, 2472 (1988)

3.87 P. Grünberg, R. Shreiber, Y. Pang, M. B. Brodsky,

H. Sowers: Layered magnetic structures: Evidence

for antiferromagnetic coupling of Fe layers across

Cr interlayers, Phys. Rev. Lett. 57, 2442 (1986)

3.88 R. L. Comstock: Introduction to Magnetism and

Magnetic Recording (Wiley, New York 1999)

3.89 N. F. Mott: The electrical conductivity of transition

metals, Proc. R. Soc. 153, 699 (1935)

3.90 J. F. Gregg: Introduction to spin electronics. In: Spin

Electronics, Lecture Notes in Physics, No. 569, ed. by

M. Ziese, M. J. Thornton (Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

2001) Chap. 1

3.91 G. Binasch, P. Grünberg, F. Saurenbach, W. Zinn:

Enhanced magnetoresistance in layered magnetic

structures with antiferromagnetic interlayer ex-

change, Phys. Rev. B 39, 4828 (1989)

3.92 R. Schad, C. D. Potter, P. Beliën, G. Verbanck,

V. V. Moshchalkov, Y. Bruynseraede: Giant magne-

toresistance in Fe/Cr superlattices with very thin Fe

layers, Appl. Phys. Lett. 64, 3500 (1994)

3.93 A. Bartélémy, A. Fert, F. Petroff: Giant magnetore-

sistance in magnetic multilayers. In: Handbook of

Magnetic Materials, Vol. 12, ed. by K. H. J. Buschow

(Elsevier, Amsterdam 1999) Chap. 1, pp. 1–96

3.94 S. S. P. Parkin, D. Mauri: Spin engineering: Direct

determination of the Ruderman–Kittel–Kasuya–

Yosida far-ﬁeld range function in ruthenium, Phys.

Rev. B 44, 7131 (1991)

3.95 A. Barthélémy, A. Fert, J-P. Contour, M. Bowen,

V. Cros, J. M. De Teresa, A. Hamzic, J. C. Faini,

J. M. George, J. Grollier, F. Montaigne, F. Pailloux,

F. Petroff, C. Vouille: Magnetoresistance and spin

electronics, J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 242–245,68

(2002)

3.96 D. H. Mosca, F. Petroff, A. Fert, P. A. Schroeder,

W. P. Pratt, R. Loloee: Oscillatory interlayer coupling

and giant magnetoresistance in Co/Cu multilayers,

J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 94, L1 (1991)

3.97 W. P. Pratt, S. F. Lee, J. M. Slaughter, R. Loloee,

P. A. Schroeder, J. Bass: Perpendicular giant mag-

netoresistances of Ag/Co multilayers, Phys. Rev. Lett.

66, 3060 (1991)

3.98 A. Fert, L. Piraux: Magnetic nanowires, J. Magn.

Magn. Mater. 200, 338 (1999) (Special issue)

3.99 M. A. M. Gijs, M. T. Johnson, A. Reinders, P. E. Huis-

man, R. J. M. van de Veerdonk, S. K. J. Lenczowski,

R. M. Gansewinkel: Perpendicular giant magnetore-

sistance of Co/Cu multilayers deposited under an

angle on grooved substrates, Appl. Phys. Lett. 66,

1839 (1995)

3.100 B. Dieny, V. S. Speriosu, S. S. Parkin, B. A. Gurney,

D. R. Wilhoit, D. Mauri: Giant magnetoresistance in

soft ferromagnetic multilayers, Phys. Rev. B 43,1297

(1991)

3.101 J. Barnas, A. Fuss, R. E. Camley, P. Grünberg, W. Zinn:

Novel magnetoresistance effect in layered magnetic

structures: Theory and experiment, Phys. Rev. B 42,

8110 (1990)

3.102 C. Tsang, D. E. Heim, R. E. Fontana, V. S. Speriosu,

B. A. Gurney, M. L. Williams: Design, fabrication

and testing of spin-valve read heads for high

density recording, IEEE Trans. Magn. 30, 3801

(1994)

3.103 W. F. Egelhoff Jr, P. J. Chen, C. J. Powell, D. Parks,

G. Serpa, R. D. McMichael, D. Martien, A. E. Berkowitz:

Specular electron scattering in metallic thin ﬁlms,

J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 17, 1702 (1999)

3.104 P. M. Tedrow, R. Meservey: Spin-dependent tunnel-

ing into ferromagnetic nickel, Phys. Rev. Lett. 26,

192 (1971)

3.105 P. M. Tedrow, R. Meservey: Spin polarization of elec-

trons tunneling from ﬁlms of Fe, Co, Ni, and Gd,

Phys. Rev. B 7, 318 (1973)

3.106 T. Dimopoulos: Spin polarised tunnel trans-

port in magnetic tunnel junctions: The role of

metal/oxide interfaces in the tunnel process.

Ph.D. Thesis (University Louis Pasteur, Strasbourg

2002)

Part 5 3

1070 Part 5 Special Structures

3.107 T. Miyazaki, N. Tezuka: Giant magnetic tunneling ef-

fect in Fe/Al

/Fe junction, J. Magn. Magn. Mater.

139, L231 (1995)

3.108 N. Tezuka, T. Miyazaki: Magnetic tunneling effect in

Fe/Al

/Ni

1−x

junctions, J. Appl. Phys. 79,6262

(1996)

3.109 J. S. Moodera, L. R. Kinder, T. M. Wong, R. Meser-

vey: Large magnetoresistance at room temperature

in ferromagnetic thin ﬁlm tunnel junctions, Phys.

Rev. Lett. 74, 3273 (1995)

3.110 M. Julli

ere: Tunneling between ferromagnetic ﬁlms,

Phys. Lett. 54, 225 (1975)

3.111 J. Nassar, M. Hehn, A. Vaures, F. Petroff, A. Fert:

Magnetoresistance of ferromagnetic tunnel junc-

tions with Al

barriers formed by rf sputter etching

in Ar/O

plasma, Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 698 (1998)

3.112 M. Viret, M. Drouet, J. Nassar, J. P. Contour, C. Fer-

mon, A. Fert: Low-ﬁeld colossal magnetoresistance

in manganite tunnel spin valves, Europhys. Lett. 39,

545 (1997)

3.113 J. Nassar, M. Viret, M. Drouet, J. P. Contour, C. Fer-

mon, A. Fert: Low-ﬁeld colossal magnetoresistance

in manganite tunnel junctions, Mater. Res. Soc.

Symp. Proc. 494, 231 (1998)

3.114 M. Bowen, M. Bibes, A. Barthélémy, J.-P. Contour,

A. Anane, Y. Lemaître, A. Fert: Nearly total spin

polarization in La

MnO

from tunneling ex-

periments, Appl. Phys. Lett. 82, 233 (2003)

3.115 T. Obata, T. Manako, Y. Shimakawa, Y. Kubo:

Tunneling magnetoresistance at up to 270 K in

0.8

0.2

MnO

/SrTiO

/La

0.8

0.2

MnO

junctions with

1.6-nm-thick barriers, Appl. Phys. Lett. 74,290

(1999)

3.116 S. Gota, J. B. Moussy, M. Henriot, M. J. Guit-

tet, M. Gautier-Soyer: Atomic-oxygen-assisted MBE

growth of Fe

(111) on α-Al

(0001), Surf. Sci. 482–

485, 809–816 (2001)

3.117 S. Van Dijken, X. Jiang, S. S. P. Parkin: Giant mag-

netocurrent exceeding 3400% in magnetic tunnel

transistors with spin-valve base layers, Appl. Phys.

Lett. 83, 951 (2003)

3.118 S. A. Wolf, A. Y. Chtchenlkanova, D. M. Treger: Spin-

tronics: Spin based electronics. In: Handbook of

Nanoscience, Engineering and Technology, Elec-

trical Engineering Textbook Series, Vol. 27, ed. by

W. A. Goddard III, D. W. Brenner, S. E. Lyshevski,

G. J. Iafrate (CRC, Boca Raton 2003) Chap. 8

3.119 E. E. Fullerton, D. T. Margulies, M. E. Schabes,

M. Carey, B. Gurney, A. Moser, M. Best, G. Zeltzer,

K. Rubin, H. Rosen, M. Doerner: Antiferromagnet-

ically coupled magnetic media layers for thermally

stable high-density recording, Appl. Phys. Lett. 77,

3806 (2000)

3.120 C. Fermon: Micro- and nanofabrication techniques.

In: Spin Electronics, Lecture Notes in Physics, No.

569, ed. by M. Ziese, M. J. Thornton (Spinger, Berlin,

Heidelberg 2001) Chap. 16

3.121 S. H. Sun, C. B. Murray, D. Weller, L. Folks, A. Moser:

Monodisperse FePt nanoparticles and ferromagnetic

FePt nanocrystal superlattices, Science 287, 1989–

1992 (2000)

3.122 J. Moritz, B. Dieny, J. P. Nozières, S. Landis, A. Lebib,

Y. Chen: Domain structure in magnetic dots prepared

by nanoimprinting and E-beam lithography, J. Appl.

Phys. 91, 7314 (2002)

3.123 J. Moritz, S. Landis, J. C. Toussaint, P. Bayle-

Guillemaud, B. Rodmacq, G. Casali, A. Lebib, Y. Chen,

J. P. Nozières, B. Dieny: Patterned media made

from pre-etched wafers: A promising route toward

ultrahigh-density magnetic recording, IEEE Trans.

Magn. 38, 1731 (2002)

3.124 S. Landis, B. Rodmacq, B. Dieny, B. Dal’Zotto,

S. Tedesco, M. Heitzmann: Domain structure of mag-

netic layers deposited on patterned silicon, Appl.

Phys. Lett. 75, 2473 (1999)

3.125 A. Lebib, Y. Chen, F. Carcenac, E. Cambril,

L. Manin, L. Couraud, H. Launois: Tri-layer sys-

tems for nanoimprint lithography with an im-

proved process latitude, Microelectron. Eng. 53,175

(2000)

3.126 S. Landis, B. Rodmacq, B. Dieny: Magnetic properties

of Co/Pt multilayers deposited on silicon dot arrays,

Phys. Rev. B 62, 12271 (2000)

3.127 X. G. Binning, M. Despont, U. Drechsler, W. Häberle,

M. Lutwyche, P. Vettiger, H. J. Mamin, B. W. Chui,

T. W. Kenny: Ultrahigh-density atomic force mi-

croscopy data storage with erase capability, Appl.

Phys. Lett. 74, 1329 (1999)

3.128 J. L. Marin, R. Riera, R. A. Rosas: Conﬁned systems

and nanostructured materials. In: Nanomaterials,

Handbook of Advanced Electronic and Photonic

Materials and Devices, Vol. 9, ed. by H. S. Nalwa

(Elsevier, Amsterdam 2000) p. 55

3.129 J. M. Hartmann, M. Charleux, J. L. Rouviere, H. Ma-

riette: Growth of CdTe/MnTe tilted and serpentine

lattices on vicinal surfaces, Appl. Phys. Lett. 70,

1113–1115 (1997)

3.130 P. Soukiassian, F. Semond, A. Mayne, G. Dujardin:

Highly stable Si atomic line formation on the beta-

SiC(100) surface, Phys. Rev. Lett. 79, 2498–2501

(1997)

3.131 D. Leonard, K. Pond, P. M. Petroff: Critical layer

thickness for self-assembled InAs islands on GaAs,

Phys. Rev. B 50, 11687–11692 (1994)

3.132 S. Rusponi, T. Cren, N. Weiss, M. Epple, P. Buluschek,

L. Claude, H. Brune: The remarkable difference be-

tween surface and step atoms in the magnetic

anisotropy of two-dimensional nanostructures, Na-

ture Mater. 2, 546–551 (2003)

3.133 R. Nötzel, T. Fukui, H. Hasegawa, J. Temmyo,

T. Tamamura: Atomic-force microscopy study of

strained InGaAs quantum disks self-organizing on

GaAs(n11) substrates, Appl. Phys. Lett. 65, 2854–2856

(1994)

Part 5 3

Mesoscopic and Nanostructured Materials References 1071

3.134 E. Ganz, K. Sattler, J. Clarke: Scanning tunneling

microscopy of the local atomic structure of two-

dimensional gold and silver islands on graphite,

Phys. Rev. Lett. 60, 1856–1859 (1988)

3.135 G. W. Clark, L. L. Kesmodel: Ultrahigh vacuum scan-

ning tunneling microscopy studies of platinum

on graphite, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 11, 131–136

(1993)

3.136 H. Xu, K. Y. S. Ng: Scanning tunneling microscopy

investigation of Co cluster growth and induced

surface morphology changes on highly oriented py-

rolitic graphite, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 13, 2160–2165

(1995)

3.137 H. Xu, K. Y. S. Ng: Surface process and interaction

of Mo clusters on highly oriented pyrolytic graphite

observed by scanning tunneling microscopy, J. Vac.

Sci. Technol. B 15, 186–191 (1997)

3.138 A. Piednoir, E. Perrot, S. Granjeaud, A. Humbert,

C. Chapon, C. R. Henry: Atomic resolution on small

three-dimensional metal clusters by STM, Surf. Sci.

391, 19–26 (1997)

3.139 G. Springholz, V. Holy, M. Pinczolits, G. Bauer: Self-

organized growth of three-dimensional quantum-

dot crystals with fcc-like stacking and a tun-

able lattice constant, Science 282, 734–737

(1998)

3.140 M. D. Levenson, N. S. Viswanathan, R. A. Simp-

son: Improving resolution in photolithography with

a phase-shifting mask, IEEE Trans. Electron Devices

ED-29, 1812–1836 (1982)

3.141 M. Brust, M. Walker, D. Bethell, D. J. Schiffrin,

R. Whyman: Synthesis of thiol-derivatized gold

nanoparticles in a 2-phase liquid–liquid system,

J. Chem. Soc., Chem. Commun. 1994, 801–802

(1994)

3.142 R. P. Andres, J. D. Bielefeld, J. I. Henderson,

D. B. Janes, V. R. Kolagunta, C. P. Kubiak, W. J. Ma-

honey, R. G. Osifchin: Self-assembly of a two-

dimensional superlattice of molecularly linked

metal clusters, Science 273, 1690–1693 (1996)

3.143 A. Taleb, C. Petit, M. P. Pileni: Synthesis of highly

monodisperse silver nanoparticles from AOT reverse

micelles: A way to 2D and 3D self-organization,

Chem. Mater. 9, 950–959 (1997)

3.144 C. J. Kiely, J. Fink, M. Brust, D. Bethell, D. J. Schiffrin:

Spontaneous ordering of bimodal ensembles of

nanoscopic gold clusters, Nature 396, 444–446

(1998)

3.145 C. J. Kiely, J. Fink, J. G. Zheng, M. Brust, D. Bethell,

D. J. Schiffrin: Ordered colloidal nanoalloys, Adv.

Mater. 12, 640 (2000)

3.146 C. Petit, A. Taleb, M.-P. Pileni: Self-organization of

magnetic nanosized cobalt particles, Adv. Mater. 10,

259–261 (1998)

3.147 G. Schmid, R. Pfeil, R. Boese, F. Bandermann,

S. Meyer, S. G. Calis, J. W. A. Van Der Velden:

Au55[P(C6H5)]12Cl6 ein Goldcluster ungewöhnlicher

Größe, Chem. Ber. 114, 3634–3642 (1981)

3.148 V. Oleshko, V. Volkov, R. Gijbels, W. Ja-

cob, M. Vargaftik, I. Moiseev, G. Vantendeloo:

High-resolution electron-microscopy and electron-

energy-loss spectroscopy of giant palladium clus-

ters, Z. Phys. D34, 283–291 (1995)

3.149 C. B. Murray, D. B. Norris, M. G. Bawendi: Synthe-

sis and characterization of nearly monodisperse CdE

(E=S, Se, Te) semiconductor nanocrystallites, J. Am.

Chem. Soc. 115, 8706–8715 (1993)

3.150 C. B. Murray, C. R. Kagan, M. G. Bawendi: Self-

organization of CdSe nanocrystallites into 3-

dimensional quantum-dot superlattices, Science

270, 1335–1338 (1995)

3.151 M. A. Olshavsky, A. N. Goldstein, A. P. Alivisatos:

Organometallic synthesis of GaAs crystallites ex-

hibiting quantum conﬁnement, J. Am. Chem. Soc.

112, 9438–9439 (1990)

3.152 C. Binns: Nanoclusters deposited on surfaces, Surf.

Sci. Rep. 44, 1–49 (2001)

3.153 W. A. De Heer: The physics of simple metal clusters:

Experimental aspects and simple models, Rev. Mod.

Phys. 65, 611 (1993)

Part 5 3