Linden D., Reddy T.B. (eds.) Handbook of batteries
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10.20 CHAPTER TEN
10.5.3 Intermittent Discharge
The capacity of the alkaline-manganese dioxide battery is dependent on the duty cycle during
the discharge. As shown in Fig. 10.12, on a light drain the battery delivers almost the same
capacity on a continuous discharge as on a highly intermittent one. On heavy drains, however,
the battery delivers less capacity on a continuous discharge than on an intermittent discharge
as it can recover during the off-periods. In contrast to the Leclanche´ batteries, where there
is a big difference between continuous and intermittent service, the capacity difference for
the alkaline batteries is much smaller.
FIGURE 10.12 Comparison of typical output capacities for alkaline-
manganese dioxide batteries as a function of duty cycle at light and
heavy drains. Highly intermittent schedule of 2 h / d equals 100%.
( From Eveready Battery Engineering Book.
3
)
10.5.4 Internal Resistance
The alkaline-manganese dioxide batteries, because of their construction and highly conduc-
tive electrolyte, have a relatively low internal resistance. This low internal resistance
is a benefit in applications involving high current pulses. As shown in Fig. 10.13 for two
different-size batteries, the internal resistance increases slowly as the voltage decreases
during discharge, but more rapidly towards the end of the discharge.
FIGURE 10.13 Internal resistance of typical alkaline-
manganese dioxide batteries as a function of service life at 20⬚C.
(a) AA-size battery, 62-⍀ discharge.
ALKALINE-MANGANESE DIOXIDE BATTERIES 10.21
FIGURE 10.13 (b) C-size battery, 20-⍀ discharge. ( From Dur-
acell Technical Bulletin.
4
)(Continued ).
10.5.5 Type of Discharge
Figure 10.14 shows a group of discharge curves illustrating the relative performance obtained
from an AA-size alkaline battery under conditions of constant resistance, constant current,
and constant power. The values for resistance, current, and power were chosen so that the
power provided by the battery at the end-point voltage (0.8 V) was the same in all three
cases. As discussed in Sec. 3.2.3, the constant-resistance discharge runs the shortest, because
the voltage and current are higher during the earlier stages of discharge. Hence the battery
is providing a higher power level earlier in the discharge, with a higher average current and
power level during the total discharge. The constant-power discharge runs the longest because
the current is lower throughout the discharge. The constant-current discharge is intermediate
between the constant-resistance and constant-power curves.
Figure 10.15 shows the power that can be obtained from a typical AA-size alkaline battery
as a function of load voltage at various depths of discharge. For any given depth of discharge
the maximum power is obtained when the external load resistance equals the battery internal
resistance, and this occurs with an output voltage of half the open-circuit voltage. At higher
output voltages the available power is less than this maximum power. The height of the
curve, hence the power available at a given voltage and depth of discharge, depends largely
on the internal resistance of the battery. It also depends on the open-circuit voltage of the
battery. As a battery discharges, its open-circuit voltage decreases, and its internal resistance
tends to increase. These effects combine to decrease the available power from the battery,
as illustrated in Fig. 10.15.
10.22 CHAPTER TEN
FIGURE 10.14 Comparison of constant-power, constant-current, and
constant-resistance discharge curves of typical AA-size alkaline batteries.
䡲, Constant resistance; ⽧, constant power; 䉱, constant current.
ALKALINE-MANGANESE DIOXIDE BATTERIES 10.23
FIGURE 10.15 Typical power removed from AA-size alkaline battery as a function
of load voltage, measured at various depths of battery discharge. Total capacity of
battery is 2.4 Ah. ▫, 0 Ah (fresh); ●, 0.54 Ah; 〫, 1.04 Ah; 䉭, 1.54 Ah; ⫻, 1.82 Ah.
(Courtesy of Duracell, Inc.)
10.5.6 Effect of Operating Temperature on Discharge Performance
Batteries tend to discharge more efficiently as the operating temperature is increased, at least
up to a point. Alkaline-manganese dioxide batteries can be operated at temperatures up to
55
⬚C. As the temperature is decreased, performance decreases accordingly. The lower tem-
perature limit is determined in part by the temperature at which the electrolyte freezes. The
alkaline-manganese dioxide battery can operate at temperatures as low as
⫺30⬚C. The op-
erating range for these batteries is wider than for Leclanche´ batteries. Moreover there is less
variation in output capacity for alkaline-manganese dioxide cells than for Leclanche´ batteries.
Figure 10.16 shows the capacity (service hours) for AA-size and D-size alkaline-manganese
dioxide batteries under constant resistance discharges at several temperatures.
A comparison of the performance of the AA-size and D-size batteries in both Figs. 10.9
and 10.16 illustrates the relatively better performance of the AA-size cell under the higher
drain and lower temperature discharges. Due to the thinner cross section of the AA-size
battery, its internal resistance is relatively lower and, hence, performs proportionally better
under these more stringent conditions (also see Sec. 3.2.11). This is shown more clearly in
Fig. 10.17 which shows the effect of discharge current on the battery’s performance. Com-
paring the two 20
⬚C curves illustrates the more pronounced drop in capacity for the D-size
battery at the higher discharge rates. A similar plot at lower temperatures would confirm the
relatively poorer performance of the D-size battery compared to the AA-size cell.
10.24 CHAPTER TEN
FIGURE 10.16 Constant resistance discharge performance at typical zinc-alkaline
batteries at various temperatures to 0.8 volt cutoff voltage. (a) AA-size battery. (b)
D-size battery (Courtesy of Duracell, Inc.)
ALKALINE-MANGANESE DIOXIDE BATTERIES 10.25
20°C (AA)
20°C (D)
18 60 180 600 1,800 6,000 18,000 D-SIZE
AA-SIZE
FIGURE 10.17 Effect of load on performance of typical AA-size and D-size alkaline batteries for continuous-
current discharge. (End voltage 0.8 V)
FIGURE 10.18 Effect of time and storage temperature on relative dis-
charge performance (on moderate drain) of alkaline-manganese dioxide
batteries. (From Eveready Battery Engineering Book.
3
)
10.5.7 Effect of Storage at Various Temperatures on Subsequent
Discharge Performance
Undesirable chemical reactions, including self-discharge, corrosion, and degradation of bat-
tery materials, can occur during storage of a battery. These reactions will proceed more
rapidly if the battery is stored at high temperatures and more slowly at low temperatures.
The result of these reactions is decreased battery performance after storage. Alkaline-
manganese dioxide batteries tend to maintain their capacity well during storage. In this
respect, they are superior to Leclanche´ batteries. Figure 10.18 shows the projected percent
service maintenance for typical alkaline-manganese dioxide batteries on moderate-drain dis-
charge, after being stored for different times at various temperatures. Figure 10.19 shows
the storage time needed for a 90% retention of discharge capacity (on moderate-drain dis-
charge) as a function of storage temperature. Over a wide range of temperatures (0–50
⬚C)
the plot of the logarithm of storage time vs. storage temperature (as illustrated in Fig. 10.19)
is linear. Thus the storage temperature has an exponential effect on the rate of capacity loss
of the battery.
10.26 CHAPTER TEN
FIGURE 10.19 Storage time for 90% retention of discharge
capacity (on moderate drain) vs. storage temperature for typical
alkaline-manganese dioxide battery. (From Eveready Battery
Engineering Book.
3
)
FIGURE 10.20 Capacity retention after storage vs. cutoff voltage for D- and C-size
alkaline batteries for different resistive loads.
While the previous two graphs indicate typical effects of storage on performance, the
effects in particular cases will depend, as well, on the specifics of the discharge including
the cutoff voltage and the discharge rate. Figure 10.20 illustrates this situation. The percent
capacity retention is shown to depend on the discharge rate (capacity retention is higher for
lower-rate discharges) as well as on the cutoff voltage (usually the capacity retention is better
as the voltage is lower, but not in all cases). In general the more stringent the discharge
condition, the greater the loss of capacity.
ALKALINE-MANGANESE DIOXIDE BATTERIES 10.27
10.6 BATTERY TYPES AND SIZES
Alkaline-manganese dioxide primary cells and batteries are available in a variety of sizes,
in both cylindrical and miniature (button-cell) configurations, as listed in Table 10.9. Some
of the unit cell sizes listed are not available as single cells, but are used as components in
multiple-cell batteries. Figure 10.21 shows the nominal capacity of various-size batteries as
a function of weight and cell volume.
The cylindrical batteries are generally known by the nomenclature of D, C, AA, and so
on. In addition, battery manufacturers often have their own identification codes for these
batteries. For miniature batteries, manufacturers tend to have their own codes. For both types
of batteries there are also nomenclature codes that have been established by different stan-
dards agencies, such as the IEC and ANSI.
Multiple-cell batteries (Table 10.10) are made using either miniature or cylindrical cells.
In addition, some special multicell batteries are made using flat cells of a type not used in
single cell batteries.
TABLE 10.9 Characteristics of 1.5-V Standard Alkaline-Manganese Dioxide Batteries*
Size IEC ANSI
Capacity,†
Ah
Nominal dimensions
Diameter,
mm
Height,
mm
Weight,
g
Volume,
cm
3
Cylindrical types
AAAA LR61‡ 25A 0.56 8 42 65 2.2
N LR1
LR50
910A 0.8
0.56
12
16
29
16
9
11
3.3
3.6
AAA LR03 24A 1.1–1.25 10 44 11 3.8
AA LR6 15A 2.5–2.85 14 50 23 7.5
C LR14 14A 7.1–8.4 26 50 66 26
D
F
LR20
LR25
13A 14.3–18
22
34
33
61
91
138
200
54.4
80
Button types
LR41 0.035 7.9 3.6 0.6 0.2
LR43 1167A 0.100 11.6 4.2 1.4 0.3
LR44 1166A 0.145 11.6 5.4 2.3 0.5
LR48 0.060 7.9 5.4 0.9 0.3
LR53 1129AP 0.160 23.0 5.9 6.8 2.3
LR54 1168A 0.072 11.6 3.1 1.1 0.3
LR55 1169A 0.040 11.6 2.1 0.9 0.2
* Values are typical figures based on data from different manufacturers.
† Capacity values based on typical output on rating drain; higher capacity batteries are marketed by some manufacturers.
‡ Proposed IEC Nomenclature: LR8D425
10.28 CHAPTER TEN
FIGURE 10.21 Capacity vs. weight and volume for variety of
sizes of alkaline-manganese dioxide batteries. (Data from Table
10.9; courtesy of Eveready Battery Company.)
TABLE 10.10 Characteristics of Multiple-Cell Standard Alkaline-Manganese Dioxide
Batteries
Voltage,
V IEC ANSI
Nominal dimensions
Dimensions,
mm
Weight,
g
Volume,
cm
3
Capacity,
Ah
3
3
4.5
4.5
4.5
6
6
6
6
6
6
9
12
2LR53
2LR50
3LR50
3LR50
4LR44
4LR61
4LR25Y
4LR25X
4LR20-2
6LR61
1202AP
1308AP
1313AP
1306AP
1307AP*
1414A
1412AP
915A†
908A‡
㛳
918A㛳
930A
1604A
24d, 12h
17d, 42.5h
41, 17, 11.5
17d, 50h
17d, 58h
13d, 25h
48, 35.6, 9
110, 67, 67
105, 67, 67
137, 125, 73
140, 118, 67
49, 26, 17.5
10.3d, 28.5h
14
22
12.2
31
32.5
11
32
885
885
612
1900
1270
1120
46
7.4
5.4
7.4
7.4
11
11.5
3.3
15
434
434
434
1123
1123
883
21
2.37
0.16
0.56
0.17
0.55
0.55
0.15
0.57
22
22
13
44
27
22
0.58
0.034
* Similar to battery above, but has snap contacts.
† Screw contacts.
‡ Spring contacts.
㛳 Commercially produced batteries using either D- or F-size unit cells. The larger values for capacity
and weight are for the batteries containing the larger unit cells.
ALKALINE-MANGANESE DIOXIDE BATTERIES 10.29
10.7 PREMIUM ZINC/ALKALINE/MANGANESE DIOXIDE HIGH-
RATE BATTERIES
Recently introduced in 1999, these specially designed alkaline-manganese dioxide batteries
are capable of better performance at higher discharge rates than the standard batteries. They
are marketed to meet the more stringent high power requirements of portable electronic
devices (i.e., digital cameras, cell phones, PDAs, etc.) The performance characteristics of the
premium AA-size batteries are summarized in Figs. 10.22(a)to(e) and 10.23(a)to(c).
FIGURE 10.22 Performance characteristics of premium zinc /alkaline /
manganese dioxide primary batteries AA-size at 20⬚C. (a) Discharge char-
acteristics at various power drains. (b) Discharge characteristics at various
current drains.