Linden D., Reddy T.B. (eds.) Handbook of batteries
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I.10 INDEX
Lead-acid SLI batteries (Cont.):
performance characteristics, 23.37–23.44
self-discharge, 23.41
service life, 23.41–23.42
temperature and, 23.38–23.40
testing, 23.43–23.44
types and sizes, 23.44
Lead-acid stationary batteries, 23.54–23.67
construction, 23.54–23.57
discharge performance, 23.63
energy density, 23.62
performance characteristics, 23.57–23.65
service life, 23.63
types and sizes, 23.65–23.67
Lead/ fluoboric acid/ lead dioxide batteries, 19.7
Lead oxide, producing, 23.27
Leakage current, 17.9–17.10
Leclanche´, Georges-Lionel, 8.2
Leclanche´ batteries (see Zinc-carbon batteries)
LEO, 32.1, 32.16–32.17
performance, 32.25
Liquified petroleum gases, 43.10
Lithium, 1.4, 7.5, 7.8, 14.5–14.6, 15.1, 20.1,
21.4, 34.5
Lithium/ air primary batteries, 38.46–38.50
Lithium-aluminum/ manganese dioxide
batteries, 34.51–34.53
Lithium-aluminum/ vanadium pentoxide
batteries, 34.54
Lithium anode reserve batteries, 16.9, 20.1–
20.21
ampoule-type cells, 20.5–20.7, 20.15–20.18
characteristics, 20.1–20.2, 20.5, 20.11
chemistry, 20.2–20.4
components, 20.4
construction, 20.4–20.14
discharge performance, 20.15–20.18
multicell bipolar with single-activator
reservoir, 20.13–20.14
multicell single-activator design, 20.7–20.12
performance characteristics, 20.15–20.20
types of, 20.5–20.14
Lithium/ carbon batteries, 34.45
Lithium/ carbon monofluoride primary batteries,
14.72–14.84
applications, 14.84
chemistry, 14.72
coin, 14.74–14.75, 14.79
construction, 14.73–14.74
cylindrical, 14.75
performance characteristics, 14.74–14.79
safety and handling, 14.84
shelf life, 14.79
types of, 14.80–14.83
Lithium/ cobalt disulfide cells, 21.9–21.10
Lithium/ copper chloride batteries, 34.45,
34.48–34.50
Lithium/ copper oxide primary batteries, 14.92–
14.99
applications, 14.99
bobbin-type cylindrical, 14.94–14.97
button, 14.94
characteristics, 14.92
chemistry, 14.93
construction, 14.93
high temperature, 14.98
performance characteristics, 14.94–14.98
spirally wound cylindrical, 14.98
types of, 14.99
Lithium/ copper oxyphosphate primary cells,
14.92–14.99
applications, 14.99
bobbin-type cylindrical, 14.94
characteristics, 14.92, 14.98–14.99
chemistry, 14.93
construction, 14.93
high temperature, 14.98
types of, 14.99
Lithium/ iodine primary cells, 15.9–15.21
applications, 15.11–15.13
characteristics, 15.9–15.10
construction, 15.10–15.13
discharge performance, 15.14–15.19
temperature and, 15.21
Lithium-ion batteries, 5.17, 22.11, 34.6, 35.1–
35.94, 37.27
additives, 35.30
advantages, 35.2
capacity fade, 35.13–35.15
characteristics, 35.1–35.3
charge, 35.67–35.70
chemistry, 35.4–35.30
commercial cylindrical batteries, 35.37–35.46
construction of cylindrical and prismatic
batteries, 35.31–35.34
designation and markings, 35.3
disadvantages, 35.2–35.3
electrolytes, 35.21–35.28
flat-plate prismatic batteries, 35.34
intercalculation processes, 35.4–35.5
large cylindrical batteries, 35.46–35.49
negative electrode materials, 35.16–35.20
performance, 35.35–35.67
polymer batteries, 35.71–35.85
positive electrode materials, 35.6–35.13
prismatic cells, 35.49–35.67
safety testing of cylindrical batteries, 35.70–
35.71
separator materials, 35.29–35.30
thin-film, solid-state batteries, 35.85–35.90
INDEX I.11
trends, 35.90
wound batteries, 35.31–35.34
Lithium/ iron disulfide primary batteries, 14.84–
14.92, 21.8–21.9
applications, 14.91–14.92
characteristics, 14.84
chemistry, 14.85
construction, 14.86–14.87
current-limiting devices and, 14.87
discharge performance, 14.87
impedance, 14.91
performance characteristics, 14.87–14.91
storing, 14.91
temperature and, 14.91
thermal balances, 21.1–21.22
types of, 14.91–14.92
voltage, 14.87
Lithium/ iron sulfide secondary batteries, 37.22,
41.1–41.23
advantages, 41.2
applications, 41.2–41.3, 41.15–41.22
chalcogenide bipolar seal, 41.14–41.15
characteristics, 41.1–41.2
charging, 41.10
construction, 41.4–41.5
disadvantages, 41.2
discharge performance, 41.6–41.7
efficiency, 41.9
electrochemical system, 41.3
history of technical advances, 41.5
influence of additives, 41.10–41.14
performance characteristics, 41.6–41.15
power or energy characteristics, 41.9
self-discharging, 41.10
service life, 41.9
temperature, 41.8
voltage, 41.6
Lithium/ lithiated cobalt dioxide cells, 34.32-
34.35
Lithium/ lithiated nickel dioxide cells, 34.32
Lithium/ manganese dioxide primary batteries,
14.55–14.72, 34.27–34.30
applications, 14.71
bobbin-type cylindrical, 14.56
chemistry, 14.55
coin, 14.55, 14.59–14.60
construction, 14.55–14.58
discharging, 14.59–14.67
foil, 14.57
multicell 9-V, 14.57, 14.65
performance characteristics, 14.59–14.70
safety and handling, 14.71
service life, 14.67
shelf life, 14.67
sizes, 14.70–14.71
spirally wound cylindrical, 14.56–14.57,
14.62–14.65
voltage, 14.59
Lithium/ manganese dioxide secondary
batteries, 34.27–34.30
Lithium/ molybdenum disulfide batteries,
34.25–34.27
Lithium/ niobium selenide batteries, 34.31
Lithium/ oxychloride primary batteries, 14.49–
14.55
advantages, 14.49
halogen-additive, 14.50–14.55
Lithium/ oxygen battery, 38.49–38.50
Lithium/ pre-charged cells, 20.4
Lithium primary batteries, 14.1–14.106
advantages, 14.1–14.2
applications, 14.1
characteristics, 14.1–14.4, 14.9–14.11
charging, 14.18
chemistry, 14.5–14.9
classification of, 14.2–14.4
couples and reaction mechanisms, 14.9
design, 5.6–5.7
history, 14.1
incineration, 14.18–14.19
overheating, 14.18
performance characteristics, 14.9–14.16
safety and handling, 14.17–14.19
short-circuiting, 14.17–14.18
voltage reversal, 14.18
Lithium rechargeable batteries, 34.1–34.62
advantages, 34.1–34.2
applications, 34.2
characteristics, 34.1–34.2, 34.17–34.25
chemistry, 34.4–34.17, 34.23–34.24
classifications, 34.18
conductivity, 34.16–34.17
disadvantages, 34.1–34.2
discharge performance, 34.31, 34.33
electrochemical systems, 34.1
electrolytes, 34.12, 34.15–34.22, 34.36–34.41
negative electrodes, 34.4–34.8
performance characteristics, 34.22–34.25
positive electrodes, 34.42–34.45
types of, 34.25–34.35
vapor pressure, 34.16
Lithium/ silver vanadium oxide batteries,
14.99–14.104
applications, 14.103–14.104
chemistry, 14.100
construction, 14.100–14.101
performance, 14.101–14.103
types, 14.103
I.12 INDEX
Lithium solid-electrolyte batteries, 15.3
Lithium solid-electrolyte / metal salt batteries,
15.3–15.9
characteristics, 15.3
chemistry, 15.4
construction, 15.5–15.6
performance characteristics, 15.6–15.8
safety and handling, 15.9
service life, 15.6
storing, 15.9
Lithium/ sulfur dioxide batteries, 14.19–14.31,
21.3
applications, 14.29–14.31
chemistry, 14.19–14.21
construction, 14.21
discharge performance, 14.23
performance characteristics, 14.22–14.27
resistance, 14.24
safety considerations, 14.29
service life, 14.25
shelf life, 14.25–14.26
sizes of, 14.27–14.28
temperature and, 14.23
types of, 14.27–14.28
voltage, 14.22
voltage delay, 14.27
Lithium/ sulfuryl chloride primary batteries,
14.49–14.50
Lithium/ thionyl chloride batteries, 19.8–19.9
Lithium/ thionyl chloride primary batteries,
14.31–14.49, 20.2–20.3
applications, 14.31, 14.47–14.49
bobbin-type cylindrical, 14.32–14.38
characteristics, 14.37
construction, 14.32
designs, 14.37
performance, 14.33–14.37
sizes, 14.38
characteristics, 14.31
chemistry, 14.31–14.32
flat or disk-shaped, 14.42–14.45
large prismatic, 14.45–14.46
spirally wound cylindrical, 14.38–14.42
Lithium/ titanium disulfide batteries, 34.30
Lithium/ vanadium pentoxide batteries, 20.2
Lithium/ water primary batteries, 38.47–38.48
Magnesium, 7.7
Magnesium batteries, 9.1–9.14
Magnesium water-activated reserve batteries,
17.1–17.27
advantages, 17.2
applications, 17.23–17.25
characteristics, 17.1–17.2
chemistry, 17.2–17.3
components, 17.7–17.9
disadvantages, 17.2
electrolytes, 17.10
encasement, 17.9
intercell connections, 17.9
leakage current, 17.9–17.10
magnesium/ silver chloride batteries, 17.25
performance characteristics, 17.10–17.23
separators, 17.9
service life, 17.10
sizes, 17.26
types of, 17.3–17.5, 17.26
Magnesium/ air batteries, 9.13
Magnesium/ air primary batteries, 38.44–38.45
Magnesium/ cuprous chloride reserve batteries,
17.20
Magnesium/ manganese dioxide primary
batteries, 9.1
construction, 9.4–9.6
design, 9.12
discharge performance, 9.6–9.7
performance characteristics, 9.6–9.12
shelf life, 9.10
sizes or dimensions, 9.11–9.12
types of, 9.11–9.12
Magnesium/ manganese dioxide reserve
batteries, 17.22
Magnesium/ silver chloride batteries, 17.25
Maintenance:
cell balancing, 23.77
charging, 23.75
cleaning corrosion, 23.77
electrical reconditioning, 27.20–27.21
electrolyte level, 23.76–23.77
lead-acid batteries, 23.75
mechanical, 27.21–27.22
overdischarging, 23.76
overheating and, 23.77
SLI maintenance-free batteries, 23.35–23.37
system inspection criteria, 27.22
Manganese dioxide, 8.12–8.13, 10.5–10.6
Marine batteries, 23.87
Mass transport:
concentration polarization and, 2.17–2.19
electrodes and, 2.16–2.20
migration component of, 2.16
Memory back-up batteries, 28.29–28.30
Memory effect, 27.23, 29.19–29.20
Mercuric oxide cathode, 11.4–11.5
Mercuric oxide batteries, 11.1–11.15
advantages, 11.2
characteristics, 11.1–11.2
INDEX I.13
chemistry, 11.2
components, 11.3–11.5
construction, 11.5–11.8
disadvantages, 11.2
discharge performance, 11.9
history, 11.1
performance characteristics, 11.8–11.14
Mercury, 10.8–10.9
Metal/ air batteries, 38.1–38.53
advantages, 38.2
air electrode, 38.5
aluminum/ air, 38.31–38.43
characteristics, 38.1–38.3
charging, 38.5
chemistry, 38.4–38.5
disadvantages, 38.2
efficiency, 38.5
electrolyte carbonation, 38.4
lithium/ air, 38.46–38.50
lithium/ water, 38.47–38.48
magnesium/ air, 38.44–38.45
polarization, 38.4
types of metals used for, 38.1–38.3
water transpiration, 38.4
zinc/ air, 38.6–38.30
Metal hydride alloy, 29.3, 30.9–30.10
Metal hydrides, 43.7–43.8
Metal versus plastic cell cases, 30.5
Methanol, 43.10
Midpoint voltage, 3.2
MIL (see Military standards)
Military applications, 14.29–14.31, 31.34
airborne electronics, 18.1
aircraft and mobile equipment, 22.7
antisubmarine warfare equipment, 17.1, 33.26
automated guided vehicles, 26.29
deep submergence and rescue vehicles, 33.26
fuzing, control, arming systems for artillery,
19.1
underwater, 33.26
weapon systems, 18.1, 21.1, 31.34
Military standards, 4.3
Monoblock construction, 30.13
Moonlight Project, 37.18
Morse curve, 2.7
Motive batteries, 40.15–40.16, 40.24–40.26
Natural gas, 43.10
Natural manganese dioxide, 8.12
Negative electrodes, materials for, 34.4–34.8
Nernst equation, 2.10, 2.18, 2.20
Nickel-cadmium batteries, 37.17
Nickel-cadmium batteries:
charge/ discharge reactions, 1.8–1.9
IEC nomenclature systems, 4.5–4.8
Nickel-cadmium cells, operation, 1.8–1.9, 28.2
Nickel-cadmium secondary batteries, 22.9
industrial and aerospace, 26.1–26.29
sealed, 28.1–28.35
vented sintered-plate, 27.1–27.30
Nickel electrodes, 31.3–31.6
Nickel-hydrogen batteries, 32.1–32.32, 37.15
advanced designs, 32.26–32.30
advantages, 32.1
Air Force 50-Ah, 32.7–32.9
applications, 32.1, 32.16–32.19
bipolar, 32.30
characteristics, 32.1
chemistry, 32.2–32.3
components, 32.3–32.6
COMSAT, 32.6–32.7
construction, 32.6–32.10
CPV, 32.26–32.30
design, 32.11–32.15
disadvantages, 32.1
DMPS 100-Ah, 32.11
electrodes, 32.3–32.6
energy density, 32.9–32.10
EUTELSAT, 32.11–32.12
INTELSAT, 32.11, 32.23
international space station, 32.11–32.14
IPV, 32.6
MIDEX 23-Ah, 32.11, 32.13
performance characteristics, 32.19–32.25
separators, 32.5
TRW 81-Ah, 32.11, 32.13
voltage performance, 32.19–32.21
Nickel hydroxide, 30.11–30.12
Nickel-iron secondary batteries, 22.10, 25.4–
25.13
advanced, 25.13–25.16
capacity, 25.7
cell assembly, 25.6
charging, 25.10–25.11
construction, 25.4–25.6
discharge performance, 25.8
electrodes, 25.5–25.6
electrolytes, 25.6
internal resistance, 25.10
performance characteristics, 25.7–25.11
safety and handling, 25.13
service life, 25.10
sizes, 25.11–25.12
temperature, 25.9
voltage, 25.7
I.14 INDEX
Nickel-metal hydride batteries (propulsion and
industrial), 30.1–30.37
applications, 30.18–30.21
characteristics, 30.2
charge methods, 30.29–30.30
charge retention, 30.25
chemistry, 30.3–30.4
construction, 30.4–30.14
cost reduction, 30.32–30.33
cycle life, 30.26–30.27
designs, 30.33–30.36
development targets, 30.32–30.36
discharge performance, 30.22–30.28
electrical isolation, 30.31
electrolyte, 30.12
EV battery packs, 30.14–30.15
fuel cell startup and power assist, 30.18
HEV battery packs, 30.16–30.17
performance, 30.2
shelf life, 30.28
separator, 30.12–30.13
thermal management, 30.30–30.31
ultra-high power designs, 30.33
Nickel-metal hydride batteries, sealed
(portable), 29.1–29.35
Nickel-zinc secondary batteries, 22.10, 31.1–
31.37
advantages, 31.1
applications, 31.29–31.34
characteristics, 31.1
charge retention, 31.21–31.22
charging characteristics, 31.25–31.29
chemistry, 31.2–31.3
components, 31.3–31.12
construction, 31.12–31.16
cycle life, 31.22–31.25
design, 31.13–31.16
disadvantages, 31.1
discharge performance, 31.17–31.21
electrodes, 31.3–31.6
electrolytes, 31.12
history, 31.2
performance characteristics, 31.17–31.25
safety and handling, 31.35–31.36
separators, 31.11–31.12
9-volt battery, 29.12, 29.35
NMD (see Natural manganese dioxide)
Nominal voltage, 3.2
Nonaqueous electrolyte batteries, 16.8
OCV (see Open-circuit voltage)
Ohmic polarization, 2.1
Open cells, 21.12
Open-circuit voltage, 3.2, 8.17, 11.8
lead-acid batteries, 23.10–23.11
lithium/ manganese dioxide primary cells,
14.59
lithium/ sulfur dioxide primary cells, 14.22
zinc/ air button batteries, 13.8
zinc/ silver oxide primary cells, 12.11
zinc/ silver oxide reserve batteries, 18.7–18.8
Organic solvents, characteristics, 34.13
Overflow charging, 36.16–36.17
Overheating, lithium cells, 14.18
Oxidation, 13.17
Oxygen, 1.4
Parallel diodes, 5.5
Parallel/ series charging, 24.36
Paste:
curing, 23.30
process of pasting, 23.28
producing, 23.27
Peak current, 2.21–2.22
Pellet cells, 21.13–21.14
Performance:
advanced battery systems, 34.24, 37.3–37.9,
40.7, 40.17, 41.6–41.15
cadmium/ mercuric oxide batteries, 11.13–
11.14
discharge (see Discharging)
effects of battery design on, 3.23–3.24
effects of cell design on, 3.19–3.22
factors affecting battery capacity and, 3.1–
3.24
GEO satellites, 32.23–32.25
LEO satellites, 32.25
lithium/ cobalt oxide batteries, 35.76–35.81
lithium-ion batteries, 35.35–35.67
lithium/ manganese oxide batteries, 35.81–
35.84
lithium/ silver vanadium oxide batteries,
14.101–14.103
primary cells, 7.9–7.21, 9.6–9.9, 10.13–
10.26, 12.11–12.15, 13.6–13.21, 14.9–
14.16, 14.22–14.27, 14.33–14.37, 14.59–
14.70, 14.101–14.103, 15.6–15.8
pulse load, 13.13–13.14
reserve batteries, 17.10–17.22, 18.7–18.12,
19.6–19.10, 20.15–20.20, 21.16–21.19
secondary batteries, 22.11–22.23, 23.37–
23.44, 23.47–23.51, 23.57–23.64, 24.8–
24.26, 25.7–25.13, 26.9–26.14, 27.7–
27.15, 28.6–28.20, 31.17–31.25, 32.19–
32.25, 33.8–33.18, 34.25–34.59, 35.35–
35.68, 36.5–36.13, 37.13–37.17, 39.6–
39.10, 40.7–40.28, 41.6–41.15
thin-film, solid-state batteries, 35.85–35.90
INDEX I.15
voltage, 32.19–32.21
zinc/ alkaline/ manganese dioxide battery, 7.6,
10.13–10.26
zinc-carbon cells, 8.17–8.37
zinc/ mercuric oxide batteries, 11.8–11.12
Photovoltaic systems, 37.8
Plante´, Raymond Gaston, 23.3
PNGV performance targets, 30.16
Polarity reversal, 28.13, 29.15–29.16
Polarization, 2.1–2.2, 38.4
activation, 42.7
active, 2.1
concentration, 2.1, 2.17–2.19, 42.8
lead-acid batteries, 23.12
ohmic, 2.1, 42.8–42.9
voltage-current in zinc /air button batteries,
13.10
Polarography, 2.29–2.30
Polymer lithium secondary batteries, 34.10,
34.15, 34.19–34.21, 34.36
Polymer lithium-ion batteries, 35.71–35.85
characteristics, 35.71–35.73, 35.74
electrodes, 35.73–35.74
energy density, 35.74
performance, 35.76–35.85
performance, lithium cobalt oxide, 35.75–
35.81
performance, lithium manganese oxide,
35.81–35.84
safety and abuse tests, 35.72
Portable fuel cells, 42.3–42.15
characteristics, 42.7–42.9
components, 42.7
designs, low wattage, 42.12–42.15
operation, 42.5–42.9
reaction of mechanisms, 42.5–42.7
sub-kilowatt, 42.9–42.12
types, 42.3–42.5
Porous electrodes, 2.19
Positive electrodes, materials for lithium
secondary batteries, 34.8–34.12
Positive temperature coefficient, 5.15, 14.71,
14.86–14.87
Potassium hydroxide electrolytes, 11.3
Power density, primary batteries, 7.13–7.14
Practical batteries, specific energy, 1.14–1.18
Premium zinc/ alkaline/ manganese dioxide
high-rate batteries, 10.29–10.32
Primary batteries, 7.3–7.21, 8.1–8.45, 9.1–9.14,
10.1–10.32, 11.1–11.15, 12.1–12.17, 13.1–
13.21, 14.1–14.106, 15.1–15.25
advantages, 1.5
alkaline-manganese dioxide cells, 10.1–10.32
aluminum, 9.2, 9.13
aluminum/ air, 38.31–38.43
ANSI/ IEC cross-reference listing, 4.11
applications, 1.5, 6.3, 7.3–7.6
characteristics, 6.3–6.23, 7.3–7.8
charging, 5.5–5.6
cost, 7.20–7.21
discharge load, 7.17
discharge profiles, 6.12, 7.12
duty cycle, 7.17
energy density, 7.13–7.14
IEC nomenclature system, 4.5–4.8
life-cycle cost analysis, 6.15
lithium, 5.6–5.7, 7.8
lithium/ air, 38.46–38.50
lithium batteries, 14.1–14.106
lithium/ water, 38.47–38.48
magnesium, 9.1–9.14
magnesium/ air, 38.44–38.45
mercuric oxide cells, 11.1–11.15
metal/ air, 38.1–38.53
performance characteristics, 7.7–7.21
power density, 7.13–7.14
recharging, 7.21
shelf life, 6.14, 7.20, 17.19–17.20
silver oxide cells, 12.1–12.17
solid-electrolyte cells, 15.1–15.25
temperature and, 6.13, 7.18
voltage profile, 7.12
zinc/ air, 38.6–38.30
zinc/ air button batteries, 13.1–13.21
zinc-carbon batteries, 7.5, 8.1–8.45
zinc/ mercuric oxide batteries, 7.7
zinc/ silver oxide batteries, 7.7
Prismatic batteries, 31.14
construction, 35.31–35.34
large, 14.45–14.46, 29.7
lithium-ion, 35.49–35.67
sealed, 29.6
thin, 24.7, 24.23–24.25
VRLA, 24.19–24.23
Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell, 30.18,
42.12, 43.2, 43.12
PTC (see Positive temperature coefficient)
Pulse charging, 23.74, 36.15
Pulse load, zinc /air button batteries, 13.13–
13.14
Pulse-power technology, 35.53–35.54, 41.15–
41.16
Pyrotechnic heat sources, 21.5
Rapid charging, 23.75
Rechargeable batteries (see Secondary batteries)
Recharging (see Charging)
Rectangular batteries, 28.5
Redox batteries, 37.18–37.19
Redox flow cell system, 37.18–37.19
I.16 INDEX
Reference electrodes, 2.31
Refuelable batteries, 37.23
Regenesys system, 37.20–37.21
Regulatory and safety standards, 4.21–4.22
Reserve batteries, 1.5–1.6, 16.1–16.10, 17.1–
17.27, 18.1–18.16, 19.1–19.10, 20.1–
20.21, 21.1–21.22
ambient-temperature lithium anode, 20.1–
20.21
characteristics, 16.4–16.10
classification of, 16.3–16.4
electrolyte-activated, 16.3
gas-activated, 16.3
heat-activated, 16.3
history, 16.4
magnesium water-activated, 17.1–17.27
spin-dependent, 19.1–19.10
thermal, 21.1–21.22
water-activated, 16.3
zinc/ silver oxide, 18.1–18.16
Reserve power units, 38.35–38.37
Resistance, 5.10–5.11
electronic, 8.30–8.31
internal, 8.30–8.32, 10.20, 14.24, 14.67,
25.10, 26.12, 29.15
ionic, 8.31–8.32
Rotating disk electrode, 2.32
Rotating ring-disk electrode, 2.32
SAE (see Society of Automotive Engineers
standards)
Safety, 5.1–5.7, 14.17–14.19, 14.29, 14.71,
14.84, 15.9, 18.16, 19.5, 21.20, 23.77–
23.78, 24.39, 25.13, 29.32, 31.35–31.36,
33.25, 35.70–35.71, 39.11, 40.21
Satellites:
GEO, 32.1, 32.16, 32.23–32.25
LEO, 32.1, 32.16–32.17, 32.25
(see also Aerospace applications)
Scooters, 31.30–31.31
Sealed (portable) nickel-cadmium secondary
batteries, 28.1–28.35
advantages, 28.1
applications, 28.1
button batteries, 28.4–28.5
characteristics, 28.1–28.2
charge retention, 28.16
charging characteristics, 28.20–28.26
chemistry, 28.2–28.3
construction, 28.3–28.6
cycle life, 28.17
cylindrical batteries, 28.3–28.4
disadvantages, 28.1
discharge performance, 28.7–28.8, 28.14
flat rectangular batteries, 28.5
internal impedance, 28.11
irreversible failures, 28.20
performance characteristics, 28.5–28.20
rectangular batteries, 28.5
reversible failures, 28.18–28.19
service life, 28.12, 28.18–28.20
sizes, 28.32–28.34
slim rectangular batteries, 28.5
special-purpose cells, 28.27–28.31
storing, 28.16
temperature, 28.8–28.10
types of, 28.32–28.34
voltage characteristics during charging,
28.23–28.24
voltage polarity, 28.13
Sealed nickel-metal hydride secondary batteries,
29.1–29.35
advantages, 29.2
applications, 29.1, 29.32
battery life, 29.31
battery types, 29.32–29.35
characteristics, 29.1
charge control techniques, 29.24–29.26
charge retention, 29.20–29.21
charging, 29.21–29.29
charging methods, 29.26–29.28
chemistry, 29.2–29.4
construction, 29.4–29.7
cycle life, 29.29–29.31
disadvantages, 29.2
discharge performance, 29.7–29.21
discharge types, 29.16–29.18
internal resistance, 29.15
polarity reversal, 29.15–29.16
safety and handling, 29.32
service life, 29.14–29.15
smart batteries, 29.28–29.29
temperature, 29.12–29.14, 29.31
types, 29.32–29.35
voltage depression, 29.19–29.20
Seals, 43.13
alkaline-manganese dioxide cells, 10.9–10.10
case-to-cover, 23.32
spin-dependent reserve batteries, 19.4
zinc-carbon cells, 8.16
Seawater batteries, 38.31–38.32
Secondary batteries, advanced systems
electric vehicles, 37.1–37.23
Secondary batteries, 22.1–22.24, 23.1–23.87,
24.1–24.45, 25.1–25.26, 26.1–26.29, 27.1–
INDEX I.17
27.30, 28.1–28.35, 29.1–29.35, 30.1–
30.37, 31.1–31.37, 32.1–32.32, 33.1–
33.30, 34.1–34.62, 35.1–35.94, 36.1–36.18
advanced systems, 37.1–37.23, 38.1–38.53,
39.1–39.22, 41.1–41.22
applications, 1.5, 6.3, 22.3–22.7
characteristics, 22.7, 22.12–22.13, 37.9–
37.16
charge characteristics, 22.21–22.23
charge-control devices, 5.15–5.17
charge retention, 22.19–22.20
costs, 22.23
design, 5.14–5.17
development, 37.9–37.16
discharge performance, 6.12, 22.14–22.15
high-temperature, 37.22, 40.1–40.31, 41.1–
41.23
history, 22.4
hydrogen electrode, 22.10
industrial and aerospace nickel-cadmium,
26.1–26.29
iron/ air, 25.16–25.19
iron electrode, 25.1–25.26
lead acid, 22.8–22.9, 23.1–23.87, 24.1–24.46
life-cycle cost analysis, 6.15
lithium, 34.1–34.62
lithium/ ion, 5.17, 22.11, 35.1–35.94
lithium/ iron sulfide, 41.1–41.22
metal/ air, 38.1–38.53
near-term applications, 37.17
nickel-cadmium, 22.9
nickel-hydrogen batteries, 32.1–32.30
nickel-iron, 22.10, 25.4–25.16
nickel-zinc, 22.10, 31.1–31.37
performance characteristics, 22.11–22.23
performance requirements, 37.3–37.9
sealed lead-acid, 24.1–24.45
sealed (portable) nickel cadmium, 28.1–28.35
sealed nickel-metal hydride, 29.1–29.35
service life, 22.20
silver-iron, 25.19–25.23
silver oxide, 22.10, 33.1–33.30
sodium beta, 40.1–40.30
temperature and, 6.13, 22.18
test facilities and manufacturers, 37.10–37.13
types of, 22.8–22.11
vented sintered-plate nickel-cadmium, 27.1–
27.30
voltage profiles, 22.14–22.15
zinc/ air, 38.6–38.30
zinc/ alkaline/ manganese dioxide, 36.1–36.18
zinc/ bromine, 37.18, 39.1–39.22
zinc/ manganese dioxide, 22.11
Self-discharging, 3.22–3.23, 15.19–15.20,
23.12–23.13, 23.41, 29.20–29.21, 32.3,
32.22, 41.9
Separators:
alkaline-manganese dioxide cells, 10.9
asbestos, 32.5
comparison of materials for, 23.30–23.31
lithium-ion batteries, 35.29–35.30
nickel-zinc batteries, 31.11–31.12
silver oxide batteries, 12.9–12.10, 33.6–33.7
vented sintered-plate nickel-cadmium battery,
27.5
zinc-carbon cells, 8.15
zinc/ silver oxide reserve batteries, 18.3
Zircar, 32.5
SES (see Stationary energy storage)
Short circuit protection, 5.3–5.4
Short-circuiting, 14.17–14.18
Silver electrodes, 33.5
Silver-iron secondary batteries, 25.19–25.23
charging, 25.21
cycle life, 25.21
discharge performance, 25.21
experimental designs, 25.22
temperature, 25.22
Silver oxide primary batteries, 12.1–12.17
advantages, 12.2
characteristics, 12.1, 12.16
chemistry, 12.2–12.10
components, 12.2–12.10
construction, 12.10
disadvantages, 12.3
performance characteristics, 12.11–12.15
Silver oxide secondary batteries, 22.10, 33.1–
33.30
advantages, 33.1–33.3, 33.29
applications, 33.25–33.28
cases, 33.7
characteristics, 33.1–33.3, 33.23–33.25
charge retention, 33.18
charging characteristics, 33.20–33.22
chemistry, 33.3
components, 33.4–33.8
construction, 33.4–33.8
cycle life, 33.18–33.20
design, 33.8–33.9
disadvantages, 33.1–33.3, 33.29
discharge performance, 33.9–33.10
electrodes, 33.5–33.6
electrolytes, 33.8
history, 33.1–33.3
impedance, 33.17
performance characteristics, 33.8–33.20
I.18 INDEX
Silver oxide secondary batteries (Cont.):
recent developments, 33.28
safety and handling, 33.25
separators, 33.6–33.7
sizes, 33.22–33.24
temperature, 33.9–33.10
types of, 33.22–33.24
wet life, 33.18–33.20
Sintered versus pasted nickel hydroxide
positive, 30.6–30.7
Slim rectangular batteries, 28.31
Small fuel cells, 43.1–43.20
air supply, 43.5
applications, 43.1–43.2
bipolar plates, 43.13
characteristics, 43.1–43.2
commercial cells, 43.17–43.20
design, 43.12
direct-methanol fuel cell technology, 43.11–
43.12
electrodes, 43.13
electrolyte, 43.12
50-watt cell, compressed hydrogen cylinder,
43.16
fuel cell stack technology, 43.12–43.13
fuel processing, 43.9–43.10
fuel supply, 43.4
hardware, 43.14–43.20
hydrogen storage, 43.7–43.9
operational control, 43.6–43.7
performance, 43.14–43.20
processing, 43.7–43.12
seals, 43.13
storage, 43.7–43.12
system requirements, 43.4–43.7
technologies, 43.2–43.4
thermal management, 43.5–43.6
20-watt cell, metal hydride canister, 43.17
water management, 43.5
Smart batteries, 5.18–5.22, 29.28–29.29
Society of Automotive Engineers standards,
4.3, 4.13
Sodium beta batteries, 37.22, 40.1–40.30
advantages, 40.2
applications, 40.28–40.30
characteristics, 40.1–40.2
electrochemical system, 40.3–40.6
limitiations, 40.2
sodium/ metal chloride, 40.5–40.6, 40.23–
40.28
sodium/ sulfur technology, 40.2, 40.4–40.5
Sodium hydroxide electrolytes, 11.3
Sodium/ metal-chloride batteries:
electrochemical system, 40.5–40.6
Sodium/ nickel-chloride batteries:
battery technology, 40.26–40.28
cell technology, 40.16–40.17
Sodium/ sulfur batteries:
cell:
configuration, 40.9–40.10
development, 40.14–40.16
major components, 40.8–40.9
materials, 40.10–40.11
reliability requirements, 40.19–4.20
technology, 40.11–40.16
design considerations, 40.7–40.11, 40.17–
40.21
electrical networking, 40.17–40.19
electrochemical system, 40.4–40.5
performance characteristics, 40.16–40.17
reclamation, 40.21
safety and handling, 40.21
seals, 40.2, 40.9
technology, 40.21–40.25
thermal management, 40.20
Solar power, 37.8
Soldering, 5.10
Solid-cathode lithium primary cells, 14.2, 14.4,
14.13–14.16
Solid-electrolyte batteries, 7.8, 14.4, 15.1–15.25
advantages, 15.3
characteristics, 15.1–15.3
disadvantages, 15.3
lithium, 15.3
lithium/ iodine, 15.9–15.21
lithium/ metal salt, 15.3–15.9
rubidium silver iodine electrolyte, 15.22–
15.24
Solid polymer electrolyte, 34.12, 34.15
using vanadium oxide cathode, 34.41
Soluble-cathode lithium primary batteries, 14.2,
14.12–14.13
SPE (see Solid polymer electrolyte)
Spin-dependent reserve batteries, 16.7, 19.1–
19.10
activation time, 19.7
ampoule-type cells, 19.5
applications, 19.1
characteristics, 19.1
chemistry, 19.2–19.3
components, 19.2
design considerations, 19.3–19.5
electrochemical systems, 19.7–19.10
electrode-stack arrangement, 19.3
electrolyte volume optimization, 19.4
linear acceleration limits, 19.6
performance characteristics, 19.6–19.10
safety, 19.5
INDEX I.19
seals, 19.4
shelf life, 19.6
temperature and, 19.6
voltage regulation, 19.6
Standard SLI batteries, sizes, 4.13–4.20, 23.35–
23.44
Standardization of batteries, 4.1–4.22
concepts of, 4.4–4.5
international, 4.3–4.4
nomenclature system, 4.5–4.8
Standby-float charge, 31.34
Stationary energy-storage batteries, 40.21–40.24
Sub-kilowatt fuel cells, 42.9–42.12
Sulfur-based polymeric positive electrodes,
34.42–34.45
Sulfuric acid, characteristics and properties,
23.14–23.16
Tafel equation, 2.5–2.6, 2.10
Taper charging, 23.73–23.74
Taper-current charging, 24.35
TCO (see Temperature cutoff)
Temperature cutoff, 5.15, 29.26
Temperature performance:
alkaline-manganese dioxide batteries and,
10.23–10.26
batteries during discharge, 3.10–3.11
cadmium/ mercuric oxide batteries and, 11.13
lead-acid SLI batteries and, 23.38–23.40
lithium/ iodine primary batteries and, 15.21
lithium/ iron disulfide primary batteries and,
14.87
lithium/ iron sulfide batteries and, 41.8
lithium/ sulfur dioxide primary batteries and,
14.23
magnesium batteries and, 9.13
overheating, 23.77
primary batteries and, 6.13, 7.18–7.19
sealed nickel-cadmium batteries and, 28.8,
28.23
sealed nickel-metal hydride batteries, 29.12–
29.15, 29.31
secondary batteries and, 6.13, 22.18
silver-iron batteries and, 25.22
silver-oxide batteries and, 33.8–33.13
spin-dependent reserve batteries and, 19.6
vented sintered-plate nickel-cadium batteries
and, 27.19, 27.29
zinc/ air button batteries and, 13.14–13.16
zinc-carbon batteries and, 8.33–8.34
zinc/ mercuric oxide batteries and, 11.10
zinc/ silver oxide reserve batteries and, 18.9
Temperature sensors, 27.28
Terminals, 4.8–4.9, 5.9
material selection, 5.13–5.14
Testing:
application, 4.9
examples of capacity, 4.10
lead-acid secondary batteries, 23.34
lead-acid SLI batteries, 23.43–23.44
thermal reserve batteries, 21.20
Theoretical capacity, 1.10, 1.12–1.13
Theoretical energy, 1.14
Theoretical voltage, 1.10, 1.12–1.13, 3.2
Thermal expansion, 5.22
Thermal fuse, 5.15
Thermal management, 30.30–30.31
cell, module and pack design, 30.30
water cooling versus air cooling, 30.31
Thermal management system, 40.20
Thermal reserve batteries, 16.10, 21.1–21.22
activation methods, 21.5
activation time, 21.17
advantages, 21.1–21.2
anodes, 21.4
applications, 21.1
cathodes, 21.5
cell configurations, 21.10–21.11
cell-stack designs, 21.14–21.16
characteristics, 21.1–21.3, 21.8
chemistry, 21.7–21.10
components, 21.14
construction, 21.10–21.14
cup cells, 21.11
disadvantages, 21.3
discharge performance, 21.16–21.19
electrochemical systems, 21.3–21.7
future developments, 21.20
history, 21.1–21.3
insulation materials, 21.6–21.7
interface considerations, 21.18–21.19
open cells, 21.12
pellet cells, 21.13–21.14
performance characteristics, 21.16–21.19
pyrotechnic heat sources, 21.5
safety and handling, 21.20
service life, 21.18
shelf life, 21.1
testing, 21.20
Thermal runaway, 27.23–27.24
Thermistor, 5.15
Thermodynamics, 2.4–2.5
Thermostat, 5.15
Thin-film, solid-state batteries, 35.85–35.90
electrical performance, 35.86–35.90
TMS (see Thermal management system)
Transfer coefficient, 2.8