Linden D., Reddy T.B. (eds.) Handbook of batteries
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G.22 APPENDIX G
Toshiba America Electronic Components,
Inc.
One Parkway North
Suite 500
Deerfield, IL 60015
Tel: (847) 945-1500
Fax: (847) 945-1044
http:/ /www.toshiba.com
(see also Toshiba Battery Co., Ltd., Japan)
Trojan Battery Company
12380 Clark Street
Santa Fe Springs, CA 90670
Tel: (562) 946-8381
Fax: (562) 946-8381
http:/ /www.trojan-battery.com
U.S. Army CECOM
Research, Development and Engineering
Center*
ATTN: AMSRL-RD-C2-AP
Fort Monmouth, New Jersey 07703-5021
Tel: (732) 544-2084
Fax: (732) 427-3665
http:/ /www.monmouth.army.mil /cecom /lrc/
lrchq/ power.html
U.S. Army Research Laboratory*
Sensors and Electronic Devices Directorate
2800 Powder Mill Road
Adelphi, MD 20783-1197
Tel: (301) 394-0339
U.S. Battery Manufacturing Co.
1675 Sampson Avenue
Corona, CA 91719
Tel: (909) 371-8090
Fax: (909) 371-4671
http:/ /www.usbattery.com
U.S. Microbattery
74 Batterson Park Road
Farmington, CT 06032
Tel: (860) 487-3838
Fax: (860) 429-5911
Ultralife Batteries, Inc.
2000 Technology Parkway
Newark, NY 14513 USA
Tel: (315) 332-7100
Fax: (315) 331-7800
http:/ /www.ultralifebatteries.com
Undersea Sensor Systems
2101 So. 600 East
Columbia City, IN 46725
Tel: (219) 429-5778
Fax: (219) 248-3510
http:/ /www.ultra-electronics.co.uk /Air /ussi /
Default.htm
or
http:/ /www.ultra-electronics.co.uk
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
333 Pfingsten Road
Northbrook, IL 60062-2096
Tel: (847) 272-8800
Fax: (847) 272-8129
http:/ /www.ul.com
US Nanocorp
20 Washington Avenue, Suite 106
North Haven, CT 06473-2342
Tel: (203) 234-8024
Fax: (203) 234-0383
http:/ /www.usnanocorp.com
Valence Technology
301 Canestoga Way
Henderson, NV 89015
Tel: (702) 558-1000
Wilson Greatbatch Ltd. (see Electrochem
Industries)
Yardney Technical Products, Inc.
82 Mechanic St.
Pawcatuck, CT 06379
Tel: (860) 599-1100
Fax: (860) 599-3903
http:/ /www.yardney.com
I.1
INDEX
Acids (see Electrolytes)
Activated manganese dioxide, 8.12
Activators:
electric igniters, 21.6
inertial or setback, 21.6
optical energy, 21.6
percussion primers, 21.6
Activation polarization, 2.1–2.3
Adsorption, 2.11–2.16, 2.27–2.29
contact, 2.13–2.14
ionic, 2.11–2.16
Advanced battery systems (see Part 5, advanced
systems)
Aerospace applications:
aircraft, 26.24–26.26, 26.29, 27.9–27.12,
27.26–27.30, 30.19–30.21
Air Force 50-Ah cells, 32.7–32.9
Apollo lunar spacecraft, 33.26
fuel cells and, 6.4
Hubble space telescope, 32.1, 32.17, 32.21
International Space Station, 32.11–32.14
launch vehicles, 33.26
lunar rover, 33.26
Mars Global Surveyor, 32.26–32.27
Mars Microprobe Mission, 14.47–14.49
missles, 18.1
satellites:
GEO, 32.1, 32.16, 32.23–32.25
LEO, 30.34–30.36, 32.1, 32.16–32.17,
32.25
space exploration systems, 21.2
space shuttle, 33.26
Air electrodes, 38.5
Alkaline batteries (see specific batteries or
cells)
Alkaline electrolytes, 11.3
Alkaline-manganese dioxide primary batteries,
7.1, 10.1–10.32
advantages, 10.1
anode collectors, 10.9
button configuration, 10.12
characteristics, 10.1–10.3
chemistry, 10.3–10.5
comparison with Leclanche´ batteries, 10.13
components, 10.5–10.10
anode, 10.7–10.9
cathode, 10.5–10.7
construction, 10.10–10.12
disadvantages, 10.1
discharging:
performance, 10.13, 10.15–10.21
types of, 10.21–10.22
history, 10.1
intermittent discharge, 10.20
internal resistance, 10.20
miniature, 10.10
performance characteristics, 10.13–10.16
premium zinc / alkaline / manganese dioxide
high–rate batteries, 10.29–10.32
seals, 10.9–10.10
separators, 10.9
shelf life, 10.25, 10.26
sizes or dimensions, 10.27–10.28
temperature and, 10.23–10.24
types of, 10.27–10.28
Aluminum, 7.5, 7.8, 38.2–38.3
Aluminum/ air primary batteries, 38.30–38.43
alkaline electrolytes, 38.33–38.43
applications, 38.35–38.43
characteristics, 38.35–38.43
chemistry, 38.30
discharge performance, 38.33–38.34
neutral electrolytes, 38.31–38.33
ocean power supplies, 38.31–38.33
portable, 38.31–38.32
Aluminum batteries, 7.8, 9.2, 38.30
Ambient-temperature batteries, 20.1–20.21,
34.1–34.62, 37.22–37.23
(see also specific batteries)
AMD, (see Activated manganese dioxide)
American Association of Battery
Manufacturers, 4.13
(see also specific batteries)
American Electrochemical Society, 4.1
American National Standards Institute, 4.1–4.2
Ammonia, 43.9
Ammonia vapor-activated battery, 16.10
Ampere-hour efficiency, 33.20
Ampoule cells:
lithium anode reserve batteries, 16.9, 20.4–
20.7, 20.15–20.18
spin-dependent reserve batteries, 19.5
Anodes:
bimetal, 21.4
I.2 INDEX
Anodes (Cont.):
cadmium as, 11.4
components of alkaline-manganese cells,
10.7–10.9
fuel electrode, 42.7
gelled, 10.8
lithium as, 4.6, 14.1, 14.5–14.13, 20.1, 21.4
magnesium as, 17.7–17.8, 21.4
materials for, 14.5
materials for thermal batteries, 21.4
zinc as, 11.4, 12.2–12.3
(see also Batteries, components; Cathodes;
Cells, components; Electrodes)
ANSI (see American National Standards
Institute)
Antisubmarine warfare, 33.26
Applications, 6.3–6.7, 37.3–37.25
advanced battery systems, 34.37–34.40,
34.51–34.59, 37.3–37.25, 38.35–38.43,
39.11–39.19, 41.2, 41.15–41.22
aerospace (see Aerospace applications)
aircraft, 1.5, 7.6, 22.7, 23.36, 26.24–26.26,
26.29, 27.9–27.12, 27.26–27.30, 30.19–
30.21
appliances, 6.6, 23.83, 28.1
automobile, 1.5, 6.4, 22.3, 23.35–23.44,
23.81–23.83, 30.18
aviation and marine lifejacket lights, 17.23–
17.25
Battlefield Power Unit, 38.35, 38.38–38.40
boats, 23.36, 23.53, 23.87, 31.32
communications equipment, 6.6, 14.29–
14.31, 33.26
DC power system backup, 23.86–23.87,
24.43–24.45
deep-cycle, 31.32
electric bikes, 31.30–31.31
electric vehicles, 23.84–23.85, 30.1–30.3,
30.14–30.15, 30.18, 30.26–30.33, 31.30,
31.33–31.34, 37.1–37.25, 38.25, 39.11–
39.14, 40.15–40.25, 41.3, 41.16–41.22
electronics, 1.5, 5.14–5.22, 6.4, 7.6, 13.1–
13.2, 14.47, 14.71, 14.84, 14.91–14.92,
14.99, 19.1, 23.83, 28.1, 29.1, 29.32,
37.8–37.9
emergency lighting systems, 26.28
energy-storage systems, 23.85–23.86, 37.6–
37.9, 39.14–39.19, 40.14, 40.21–40.24
environmental considerations, 31.30
farm equipment, 23.82–23.83
floor maintenance machinery, 23.53
forklifts, 6.5, 23.52–23.53
fuel cells, 6.4, 30.18
golf carts, 6.5, 23.46, 23.53, 23.84
hybrid vehicles, 23.83–23.85, 30.1, 30.16–
30.17, 30.22–30.33
industrial equipment, 6.5–6.6, 23.84, 25.2
marine, 23.87
mass-transit, 26.28
medical devices, 7.4, 13.2, 14.71, 14.99,
14.103–14.104, 15.9–15.21
military, 14.19, 14.26, 14.29–14.31, 14.42–
14.47, 14.71, 15.5–15.20, 17.1, 17.23–
17.25, 18.1, 18.4–18.7, 18.12–18.16,
21.16–21.20, 31.34
mine cars, 23.53, 25.2
miners’ lamps, 23.83, 25.2
motorcycles, 23.36
portable equipment, 1.5, 6.8–6.23, 7.3–7.6,
13.1–13.2, 23.83, 24.1, 28.1
primary batteries, 1.5, 6.3, 7.3–7.6, 13.1–
13.2, 14.1–14.104, 15.1–15.24, 18.1–
18.16, 20.1–20.20, 21.1–21.20
pulse-power, 35.53–35.54, 35.62, 41.15–
41.16
railroad, 26.25, 26.28
reserve batteries, 18.1, 19.1, 20.1
reserve power units, 38.35–38.37
scooters, 31.30–31.31
seawater batteries, 38.31–38.33
secondary batteries, 1.5, 6.4, 22.3–22.23,
23.36, 23.44–23.53, 24.1, 24.43–24.45,
25.1, 26.28–26.29, 27.9, 28.1, 29.1, 29.32,
31.29–31.34, 32.1, 32.16–32.18, 33.1,
33.25–33.26, 37.1–37.11, 39.8–39.11,
40.15–40.30, 41.15–41.22
snowmobilies, 23.82
special batteries, 6.4, 31.34
standby-float charge, 23.25, 24.17–24.19,
24.31–24.33, 31.34
starting, lighting and ignition, 6.5, 23.35–
23.44, 23.81–23.83, 30.18–30.19
static UPS, 23.86–23.87, 24.43–24.45
stationary energy storage systems, 1.5,
38.40–38.43
trolling motors, 23.53, 31.32
underwater propulsion, 31.34, 33.25–33.27
uninterruptible power systems, 6.5, 23.86,
24.43–24.45, 26.28
water-activated, 17.1–17.26
wheelchairs, 23.53, 31.32
(see also specific batteries)
Arcing, 27.24–27.25
ASW (see Antisubmarine warfare)
Automotive applications. See Applications,
automotive
(see also Electric vehiciles; Hybrid electric
vehicles; Military applications)
INDEX I.3
Automotive batteries (see Applications,
automotive)
AVA battery (see Ammonia vapor-activated
battery)
Aviation fuel, 43.10
Average voltage, 3.2
Barriers:
silver oxide batteries, 12.9–12.10
Batteries:
advanced systems, 37.1–37.23, 38.1–38.53,
39.1–39.22, 40.1–40.30, 41.1–41.22
age and storage condition, 3.22–3.23
applications (see Applications)
bobbin-type cylindrical, 14.32–14.38, 14.56,
14.61
bundle (parallel) multicell, 36.11
characteristics, 3.1, 6.8–6.14
classification, 1.4–1.6
coin, 14.55, 14.59–14.60, 14.74–14.75, 34.59
components, 1.3–1.4
construction, 3.19–3.22, 5.10–5.14
cylindrical, 28.3–28.4, 29.4–29.5
design, 3.19–3.22, 5.1–5.22
dimensions, 4.12–4.13
effects of design on performance, 3.23–3.24
electric-vehicle, 40.15–40.16
(see also Electric vehicles)
electrochemical systems, 1.9–1.14, 2.1–2.37
energy density, 1.14–1.18
factors affecting capacity and performance,
3.1–3.24
fast-charge, 28.27–28.28
flat or disk-shaped, 14.42–14.45
flat rectangular, 28.5, 28.31
gas-activated reserve, 16.3, 16.10
heat-resistant, 28.29
high-capacity, 28.26–28.27
high temperature batteries, 40.1–40.31, 41.1–
41.23
high-temperature performers, 28.28
large prismatic, 14.45–14.46
lithium/ silver vanadium oxide batteries,
14.99–14.104
marking information, 4.10
memory-backup, 28.29–28.30
9-volt, 29.12, 29.35
nonaqueous electrolyte batteries, 16.8
performance during discharge, evaluation,
3.8–3.10
primary (see Primary batteries)
reasons for failure, 5.2
rechargeable (see Secondary batteries)
rectangular, 28.5–28.6, 28.31
regulatory and safety standards, 4.21–4.22
reserve, 1.5–1.6, 16.1–16.10, 17.1–17.27,
18.1–18.16, 19.1–19.10
sealed prismatic, 29.6–29.7, 29.34
secondary (see Secondary batteries)
selection criteria, 6.2, 6.22–6.23
service life, 3.12
slim rectangular, 28.5, 28.31
spirally wound cylindrical, 14.38–14.42
standardization, 4.1–4.22
terminals, 4.8–4.9, 5.9, 5.13–5.14
testing (see Testing)
thermal, 16.10
36 to 42 V SLI, 30.18
VLRA prismatic, 24.6–24.7, 24.19–24.23
water-activated, 16.7, 17.1–17.26
zinc/ air cell, 7.7
zinc/ silver oxide, 16.7
(see also Cells; specific batteries)
Battlefield Power Unit, 38.35, 38.39
Bipolar plates, 43.13
Bobbin batteries:
electrodes and, 3.19
lithium/ manganese dioxide, 14.56, 14.61–
14.62
lithium/ thionyl chloride, 14.32–14.38
zinc-carbon, 8.12
Button batteries:
discharge characteristics, 29.7
lithium/ copper oxide primary, 14.94
nickel-cadmium batteries, 28.4–28.5
nickel-metal hydroxide, 24.5
zinc/ air, 13.1–13.21
zinc/ mercuric oxide, 11.5–11.6
zinc/ silver oxide primary, 12.10
Cadmium anode, 11.4
Cadmium electrodes, 33.6
Cadmium/ mercuric oxide batteries, 7.7, 11.2
discharge performance, 11.13
service life, 11.14
storing, 11.14
temperature and, 11.13
Cadmium/ silver oxide batteries:
advantages, 33.2
charging, 33.21
disadvantages, 33.2
discharge performance, 33.13
Calcium/ calcium chromate cells, 21.10
I.4 INDEX
Capacity:
battery design and, 3.23–3.24
cell design and, 3.19–3.22
charging voltage and, 3.18
current drain of discharge and, 3.3–3.5
discharge temperature and, 3.10–3.11
discharging and, 3.5–3.11
factors affecting battery, 3.1–3.24
service life and, 3.12
theoretical and actual, 1.10, 1.12–1.13
voltage level and, 3.2–3.3
voltage regulation and, 3.16–3.17
Carbon, 10.7, 34.5–34.8, 35.16–35.21
Carbon black, 8.14
Carbon rod, 8.15
Cathodes, 34.12
components of alkaline-manganese dioxide
cells, 10.5–10.7
iron materials as, 25.23–25.25
lithium battery, 14.2, 14.4, 14.6, 14.12–14.16
thermal batteries, 21.5
oxygen electrode, 42.7
mercuric oxide as, 11.4
silver chloride as, 17.8
silver oxide as, 12.3–12.9
solid, 14.4, 14.13–14.16
soluble, 14.2, 14.12–14.13
(see also Anodes; Electrodes)
CCA (see Cold-cracking amperes)
CCV (see Closed-circuit voltage)
Cell balancing, 23.77
Cells:
alkaline fuel cells, 43.2
ampoule, 19.5, 20.5–20.7, 20.15–20.18
bobbin, 3.19
case design, 5.12–5.13
charge, 1.8
classification of, 1.4–1.6
commercial fuel cells, 43.17–43.20
components, 1.3–1.4, 1.14, 8.11–8.16
construction, 3.19–3.22, 5.10–5.14, 21.10–
21.14
couples, 14.9
cup, 21.11
cylindrical, 11.6, 28.3–28.4
dimensions, 5.9
discharge, 1.7
effect of design on performance, 3.19–
3.22
effect of size on a capacity, 3.22
electrochemical operation, 1.7
electrochemical systems, 2.1–2.37
encapsulation, 5.12
50-watt fuel cell, compressed hydrogen
cylinder, 43.16
flat, 8.9–8.10
flat-pellet, 11.6
fuel cells, 42.3–42.15
high temperature batteries, 14.98
holders for, 5.7–5.8
molten carbonate fuel cells, 43.2
open, 21.12
operation of, 1.7–1.9
pellet, 21.13
phosphoric acid fuel cells, 43.2
primary (see Primary batteries)
prismatic, 31.14
proton-exchange membrane fuel cells, 42.12,
43.2, 43.12
rechargeable, 1.5
sealed, 31.13–31.15
secondary (see Secondary batteries)
shape and configuration, 1.4, 3.21
small fuel cells, 43.1–43.20
solid-electrolyte (see Solid-electrolyte
batteries)
solid oxide fuel cells, 43.2
spirally wound, 14.98
sub-kilowatt fuel cells, 42.9–42.12
stationary energy-storage, 40.21–40.24
theoretical voltage and capacity, 1.9–1.14
thin prismatic, 24.7, 24.23–24.25
20-watt fuel cell, metal hydride canister,
43.17
volumetric efficiency vs. energy density, 3.21
VRLA cylindrical, 24.4–24.5, 24.8–24.19
wound-anode construction, 11.7
(see also Batteries, specific cells)
Chalcogenide bipolar seal, 41.14–41.15
Charge-current efficiency, 24.36–24.39
Charging, 27.18
algorithms, 30.30
cell balance, 31.29
cells, 1.8
constant-current, 23.71, 24.33–24.34, 27.17,
36.14
constant-potential, 23.72–23.73, 27.17,
36.13–36.14
constant-voltage, 24.27–24.29
control monitor, 5.18
delta temperature cutoff method, 29.26
dry, 23.34
fast, 24.29–24.31, 29.27, 30.30, 31.26
float, 23.75, 24.31–24.33
general considerations regarding, 23.67–
23.75
industrial and aerospace nickel-cadmium
batteries, 26.14
lead-acid batteries, 23.70–23.75
lithium cells, 14.18
INDEX I.5
lithium-ion batteries, 35.67–35.70
lithium/ iron sulfide batteries, 41.10
low-rate method, 29.26
metal/ air batteries, 38.5
methods, 30.29–30.30
negative delta V method, 28.27
nickel-cadmium cells, 1.8–1.9
nickel-iron batteries, 25.11–25.12
nickel-zinc batteries, 31.21–31.25
normal, 30.29
overcharging, 27.19, 31.29, 32.2, 36.15–
36.17
parallel/ series, 24.36
practicing, 23.75
primary batteries, 5.2–5.3, 7.1, 7.21
protection from external, 5.5–5.6
pulse, 23.74
quick charge method, 29.26–29.27
rapid, 23.75
rate of temperature increase method, 29.26
regenerative braking, 30.29
regimes, 31.26
retention, 30.25
sealed nickel-cadmium batteries, 28.20–28.26
sealed nickel-metal hydride batteries, 29.21–
29.29
silver-iron batteries, 25.19–25.23
silver-oxide batteries, 33.20–33.21
slow, 31.27
standard method, 28.25
taper, 23.73–23.74
taper-current, 24.35
temperature compensation of charge voltage,
27.19
temperature cutoff method, 29.26
temperature detection method, 28.26
termination, 31.27–31.29
three-step procedure, 29.27–29.28
timed method, 29.25
timer control method, 28.26
trickle method, 23.74, 28.26, 29.27
vented sintered-plate nickel-cadmium
batteries, 27.16–27.19
voltage, 3.18
voltage-controlled, 27.17
voltage drop method, 29.25
voltage plateau method, 29.26
zinc/ alkaline/ manganese dioxide cells, 36.2,
36.13–36.17
zinc/ bromine secondary batteries, 39.6–39.10
Chemical hydrides, 42.9, 43.8–43.9
Chemically synthesized manganese dioxide,
8.12
Chromium-iron batteries, 37.18
Chronopotentiometry, 2.24–2.26
Closed-circuit voltage, 8.17–8.18, 12.3–12.4
Coin batteries, 13.7, 14.55, 14.59–14.60,
14.74–14.75, 34.51–34.59
Cold-cranking amperes, 23.43–23.44
Common pressure vessel, 32.26–32.30
COMSAT cells, 32.6–32.7
Concentration polarization, 2.1, 2.17–2.19
Constant-current charging, 23.71, 24.33–24.34,
27.17, 36.14
Constant-current discharging, 3.5–3.10
Constant-potential charging, 23.72–23.73,
36.13–36.14
Constant-power discharging, 3.5–3.10, 29.18–
29.19
Constant-resistance discharging, 3.6–3.10
Constant-voltage charging, 24.27–24.29
Contact adsorption, 2.13–2.14
Corrosion inhibitor, 8.14–8.15
Corrosive KOH, 27.25
Coulombic/ energy efficiency, 30.28
Counter electrodes, 2.31
CPV (see Common pressure vessel)
Cup cells, 21.11
Current drain, 3.3–3.5
Cyclic voltammetry, 2.20–2.24
Cylindrical cells, 11.6, 29.4–29.5
construction of lithium-ion batteries, 35.31–
35.34
discharge characteristics, 29.7
large, 35.46–35.48
lithium-ion commercial, 35.37–35.46
sealed nickel-cadmium batteries, 28.3–28.6
Cylindrical versus prismatic construction,
nickel-metal hydride batteries, 30.4
Deep-cycle applications, 31.32
Deep submergence and rescue vehicles, 33.26
Depolarizers, 9.13
Diesel fuel, 43.10
Delta temperature cutoff, 29.26
Depth of discharge, 22.20
Discharge load, primary batteries, 7.17
Discharging:
alkaline-manganese dioxide cells, 10.15
battery performance, evaluation, 3.8–3.10
battery temperature during, 3.10–3.11
bobbin-type cylindrical characteristics,
14.61–14.62
cadmium/ mercuric oxide batteries, 11.13
cadmium/ silver oxide cells, 8.20, 33.13–
33.16
cells, 1.7
characteristics of zinc-chloride batteries, 8.20
coin battery characteristics, 14.59–14.60
I.6 INDEX
Discharging (Cont.):
constant-current, 3.5–3.8
constant-power, 3.5–3.8, 28.15, 29.18–29.19
constant-resistance, 3.6–3.8
current drain of, 3.3–3.5
forced, 5.4
fuel cells, 1.9
industrial and aerospace nickel-cadmium
batteries, 26.9–26.12
intermittent, 8.21–8.23
intermittent and pulse, 3.13–3.16
lead-acid deep-cycle and traction batteries,
23.50
lead-acid secondary batteries, 23.12–23.13
lead-acid SLI batteries, 23.37–23.40
lead-acid stationary batteries, 23.58, 23.62–
23.63
lithium ambient-temperature rechargeable
batteries, 34.31, 34.33
lithium anode reserve batteries, 20.15–20.18
lithium/ iodine primary cells, 15.14–15.19
lithium/ iron disulfide primary batteries,
14.87
lithium/ iron sulfide batteries, 41.6–41.7
lithium solid-electrolyte / metal salt cells,
15.6–15.8
lithium/ sulfur dioxide primary batteries,
14.23
magnesium/ manganese dioxide batteries,
9.6–9.7
multicell 9-V characteristics, 14.67
nickel-cadmium cells, 1.8–1.9
nickel-iron batteries, 25.8
nickel-metal hydride batteries, 30.22–30.28
nickel-zinc batteries, 31.17–31.21
overdischarging, 23.76
primary batteries, 7.12
sealed nickel-cadmium batteries, 28.7–28.8
sealed nickel-metal hydride batteries, 29.7–
29.21
secondary batteries, 22.14
spirally wound cylindrical characteristics,
14.62–14.65
temperature, 30.24–30.25
thermal reserve batteries, 21.16–21.17
types of, 28.14, 29.16–29.18
vented sintered-plate nickel-cadmium
batteries, 27.7–27.8
VRLA secondary batteries, 24.8–24.19
zinc/ air button batteries, 13.8–13.9
zinc/ bromine secondary batteries, 39.6–
39.10
zinc/ mercuric oxide batteries, 11.8–11.9
zinc/ silver oxide batteries, 33.9–33.13
zinc/ silver oxide primary cells, 12.11–12.12
zinc/ silver oxide reserve batteries, 18.8–18.9
Ditronic cells, 12.6
DME (see Dropping of mercury electrode)
DOD (see Depth of discharge)
Dropping of mercury electrodes, 2.29, 2.31
DRSV (see Deep submergence and rescue
vehicles)
Dry cells:
magnesium, 7.7
standard methods of testing, 4.1
zinc-carbon, 8.1–8.45
DST (see Dynamic stress test)
Duty cycle, primary batteries, 3.13–3.16, 7.17
Dynamic stress test, 37.4
EDA (see Energy Development Associates)
Electric shock, 27.25
Electric utilities, 37.6–37.8
Electric vehicle (EV) battery packs, 30.14–
30.15
USABC performance targets, 30.14–30.15
Electric-vehicle engineering model, 40.7–40.8
Electric vehicles, 1.5, 22.3, 23.53, 23.85, 25.1,
30.1–30.3, 30.14–30.15, 30.18, 30.26–
30.33, 31.30, 31.33–31.34, 37.1–37.25,
38.25, 39.11–39.14, 40.15–40.25, 41.3,
41.16, 41.22
requirements, 41.16
USABC performance criteria, 37.4
Electrical contacts, zinc carbon cells, 8.16
Electrical double layer, 2.11–2.16
Gouy-Chapman, 2.14
Electrical isolation, 30.31
Electrical reconditioning, 27.20–27.21
Electroanalytical techniques, 2.20–2.34
chronopotentiometry, 2.24–2.26
cyclic voltammetry, 2.20–2.24
electrochemical impedance spectrocopy
(EIS), 2.26–2.29
electrodes and, 2.31–2.34
impedance methods, 2.26–2.29
polarography, 2.29–2.30
Electrocapillary curve, 2.11–2.12
Electrochemical systems:
operation, 1.7
principles, 2.1–2.37
spin-dependent reserve batteries, 19.7–19.10
thermal reserve batteries, 21.3–21.7
Electrodes:
bipolar plate construction, 3.19
INDEX I.7
bobbin construction, 3.19
cadmium, 33.6
calcium-zincate, 31.8–31.10
counter, 2.31
design, 3.19
dropping mercury, 2.29, 2.31
electroanalytical techniques and, 2.31–2.34
flat-plate construction, 3.19
fuel, 42.7
hydrogen, 32.5
indicator, 2.31
iron, 33.6
mass transport to surface of, 2.16–2.20
material characteristics, 1.11
negative, 34.4–34.8
negative electrode materials, 35.16–35.21
nickel, 31.3–31.5
nonsintered-nickel, 31.4–31.5
oxygen, 42.7
plastic-bonded, 31.5
pocket plate, 31.3
polymer lithium-ion batteries, 35.73–35.74
porous, 2.19–2.20
positive, 34.8–34.12, 34.42–34.45
positive materials, 35.6–35.13
processes, 2.5–2.10
proton-exchange membrane fuel cells, 42.12
reaction potentials, 2.4
reference, 2.31
rotating disk, 2.32
rotating ring-disk, 2.32
silver, 33.5
sintered-nickel, 31.4
sintered-positive, 32.4–32.5
zinc, 31.6–31.10, 33.5–33.6
zinc electrode additives, 31.8
(see also Anodes; Cathodes)
Electrolyte-activated reserve batteries, 16.3
Electrolytes, 1.4, 8.14, 21.4–21.5
absorbed, 24.1
alkaline, 11.3, 38.33–38.34
aprotic organic, 34.12
carbonation of, 13.17
formulations, 8.14
fuel cell, 43.12–43.13
gelled, 24.1
inorganic, 34.16–34.17, 34.21–34.22, 34.24,
34.45–34.50
level of, 23.76–23.77
liquid organic, 34.17–34.19
lithium cells, 14.6, 14.8, 14.9
lithium-ion batteries, 35.6–35.13, 35.16–
35.21
neutral, 38.31–38.32
nickel-metalhydride batteries, 30.12
nickel-zinc batteries, 31.12
organic liquid, 34.13
polymer, 34.12, 34.15, 34.19–34.21, 34.36–
34.45
potassium hydroxide, 27.6, 31.7–31.8
proton-exchange membrane, 42.12
solid, 7.8, 14.4, 15.1–15.25
solid state, 34.16
sulfuric acid, 23.14–23.16
water-activated batteries, 17.10
zinc/ silver oxide cells, 12.9
zinc/ silver oxide reserve batteries, 18.3
Electrolytic manganese dioxide, 8.12
Electronic energy management, 5.18–5.22
Electronic resistance, zinc-carbon cells, 8.30–
8.31
EMD (see Electrolytic manganese dioxide)
Encapsulation, 5.12
End voltage, 3.2, 8.20
Energy density, 1.14–1.18
industrial and aerospace nickel-cadium
batteries, 26.9
nickel-hydrogen batteries, 32.9–32.10
primary batteries, 7.13–7.14
spin-dependent reserve batteries, 19.5–19.7
volumetric, 7.13, 13.8
volumetric efficiency vs., 3.21
(see also Performance)
Energy storage batteries, 23.85–23.86, 37.6–
37.9, 39.14–39.19
stationary, 40.14–40.15, 40.21–40.28
Ethanol, 43.10
EUTELSAT batteries, 32.11
EVEM (see Electric-vehicle engineering model)
Explosions, 27.24
Fast-charge batteries, 28.27–28.28
Fiber nickel-cadmium (FNC) battery
technology, 26.15–26.23
FNC electrode technology, 26.15
manufacturing flexibility, 26.16
performance, 26.19–26.23
sealed versus vented designs, 26.16–26.17
sealed FNC maintenance-free batteries,
26.17–26.18
Fick’s laws of diffusion, 2.17, 2.20, 2.25
First cycle discharge, 36.5
Flat-pellet batteries, 11.6
Flat rectangular batteries, 28.5
Float charging, 23.75, 24.31–24.33
I.8 INDEX
Flow batteries, 37.18–37.21
Forced discharge, 5.4
Free energy, 1.9
Fuel cells, 1.9, 42.1–42.15, 43.1–43.20
anodic reaction, 1.9
applications, 6.4
cathodic reaction, 1.9
classification, 1.6
operation, 1.9
refuelable, 37.23
startup and power assist, 30.18
(see also Portable fuel cells, Small fuel cells)
Fuses, thermal, 5.15
Galvanostatic voltammetry, 2.24–2.26
Gas-activated reserve batteries, 16.3, 16.10
Gas barrier failure, 27.23
Gas fire, 27.24
Gas screen, 32.6
Gassing, 24.39
Gassner, Carl, 8.2
GEO satellites, 32.1, 32.16
performance, 32.23–32.25
Gouy-Chapman diffuse double layer, 2.14
Grids, 23.22–23.26
copper, 23.22
design, 23.22
production methods, 23.22–23.26
purpose, 23.22
Halogen-additive lithium/ oxychloride cells,
14.50–14.55
Heat-activated reserve batteries, 16.3
Heat-resistant batteries, 28.29
Heat sources, pyrotechnic, 21.5
Heater blankets, 27.29
Helmholtz plane, 2.14
High-capacity batteries, 28.26–28.27
High-temperature batteries, 14.98, 28.28
Hubble space telescope, 32.1
Hybrid designs, 3.19, 6.20
Hybrid electric vehicles, 30.1–30.3, 30.18,
31.33–31.34
battery packs, 30.16–30.17, 37.4–37.6
charge depletion, 30.17
charge sustaining, 30.17
PNGV performance targets, 30.16
Hydrides:
batteries, 29.1–29.35, 30.1–30.37
chemical, 43.8–43.9
metal, 43.7–43.8
Hydrogen, 1.4
Hydrogen electrode secondary batteries, 22.10,
32.1–32.32
Hydrogen storage, 43.7–43.9
IEC (see International Electrotechnical
Commission)
Impedance (see Internal Resistance)
electroanalytical techniques, 2.26–2.29
internal, 23.41, 28.11
lead-acid SLI batteries, 23.41–23.42
lithium/ iron disulfide cells, 14.91
sealed nickel-cadmium batteries, 28.11
silver-oxide batteries, 33.17
zinc/ air button batteries, 13.9
zinc/ mercuric oxide cells, 11.10
zinc/ silver oxide reserve batteries, 18.10
Incineration, lithium cells, 14.18–14.19
Indicator electrodes, 2.31
Individual-pressure-vessel cells, 32.6
Industrial and aerospace nickel-cadmium
secondary batteries, 26.1–26.29
advantages, 26.1
applications, 26.28–26.29
characteristics, 26.1–26.3
charge retention, 26.12
charging characteristics, 26.14
chemistry, 26.4
construction, 26.4–26.8
disadvantages, 26.1
discharge performance, 26.9–26.12
energy density, 26.9
fiber nickel-cadmium (FNC) battery
technology, 26.15–26.23
FNC electrode technology, 26.15
history, 26.2
internal resistance, 26.12
manufacturing flexibility, 26.16
manufacturers, 26.24–26.27
mechanical stability, 26.13
memory effect, 26.14
performance characteristics, 26.9–26.14
sealed FNC maintenance-free batteries,
26.17–26.18
sealed versus vented designs, 26.16–26.17
service life, 26.13
thermal stability, 26.13
Inorganic electrolyte batteries, 34.21–34.22
Inorganic electrolytes, 34.16–34.17, 34.21–
34.22, 34.24, 34.45–34.50
Insulation, 21.6–21.7
electrical, 21.6
thermal, 21.6
INDEX I.9
INTELSAT batteries, 32.11–32.12
Intercalation compounds, 34.8–34.10
Intercell connections, 5.10–5.11
Internal impedance:
lead-acid SLI batteries, 23.41
sealed nickel-cadmium batteries, 28.11
Internal resistance:
alkaline-manganese dioxide batteries, 10.20
industrial and aerospace nickel-cadmium
batteries, 26.12
lithium/ manganese dioxide primary cells,
14.68
lithium/ sulfur dioxide primary cells, 14.24
nickel-iron batteries, 25.10
sealed nickel-metal hydride batteries, 29.15
zinc-carbon cells, 8.30–8.32
International Electrotechnical Commission, 4.3–
4.4
nomenclature system, 4.5–4.8
International Space Station, 32.11, 32.16
International Standards Organization, 4.2–4.4
Ionic adsorption, 2.11–2.16
Ionic resistance, zinc-carbon cells, 8.31–8.32
IPV (see Individual-pressure-vessel cells)
IR drop, 2.1–2.2
Iron/ air secondary batteries, 25.16–25.19
Iron electrode secondary batteries, 25.1–25.26
applications, 25.1
characteristics, 25.1–25.2
chemistry, 25.2–25.4
history, 25.1
Iron electrodes, 33.6
Iron materials as cathodes, 25.23–25.25
Iron/ silver oxide batteries:
advantages, 33.3
disadvantages, 33.3
ISO (see International Standards Organization)
Jackets, zinc-carbon cells, 8.16
Lead alloys:
producing, 23.19
properties of, 23.20–23.21
Lead-acid batteries, 4.13–4.20, 37.17
Lead-acid deep-cycle and traction batteries,
23.44–23.53
applications, 23.46–23.47, 23.53
construction, 23.44–23.47
discharge performance, 23.50
performance characteristics, 23.47–23.51
service life, 23.50
types and sizes, 23.52–23.53
Lead-acid secondary batteries, 23.1–23.87
activating, 23.35
advantages, 23.2
alloy production, 23.19–23.21
applications, 23.81–23.87
assembly, 23.30–23.32
case formation, 23.33
case-to-cover seal, 23.32
characteristics, 23.1–23.3
charging and charging equipment, 23.67–
23.75
chemistry, 23.6–23.16
components, 23.16
construction, 23.16–23.35
curing process, 23.30
deep-cycle and traction, 23.44–23.53
disadvantages, 23.2
discharge performance, 23.12–23.13
dry charge, 23.34
failure modes, 23.80–23.81
gravity, 23.9, 23.32
grid production, 23.22–23.26
history, 23.3–23.5
lead oxide production, 23.27
maintenance, 23.75–23.77
manufacturing statistics, 23.5–23.6
paste production, 23.27
pasting, 23.28
polarization, 23.12
resistive losses, 23.12
safety, 23.77–23.78
sealed, 24.1–24.45
seals, 23.32
separators, 23.30–23.31
service life, 23.79–23.80
shipping, 23.35
specific gravity, 23.10
starting-lighting-ignition, 23.35–23.44
stationary, 23.54–23.67
tank formation, 23.32–23.33
testing and finishing, 23.34
valve-regulated, 22.8
voltage, 23.10
Lead-acid SLI batteries, 23.35–23.44
aircraft, 23.36
applications, 23.36
characteristics, 23.35
construction, 23.35–23.36
discharge performance, 23.37
heavy-duty, 23.35–23.36
impedance, 23.41
maintenance-free, 23.36