Linden D., Reddy T.B. (eds.) Handbook of batteries
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DEFINITIONS A.11
Rate Constant At equilibrium, the forward and backward Faradic currents of an elec-
trode process are equal and referred to as the exchange current. This exchange current
can be defined in terms of a rate constant called the standard heterogeneous rate constant
for the electrode process.
Rated Capacity The number of Ampere-hours a battery can deliver under specific con-
ditions (rate of discharge, end voltage, temperature); usually the manufacturer’s rating.
Recharge See CHARGE.
Rechargeable Battery See SECONDARY BATTERY.
Recombination A term used in a sealed cell construction for the process whereby in-
ternal pressure is relieved by reaction of oxygen with the negative active material.
Recovery See RECUPERATION.
Recuperation The lowering of the polarization of a cell during rest periods.
Redox Cell A secondary cell in which two soluble ionic reactants, separated by a
membrane, form the active materials.
Reference Electrode A specially chosen electrode which has a reproducible potential
against which other electrode potentials may be measured. (See HYDROGEN ELEC-
TRODE).
Reserve Cell or Battery A cell or battery which may be stored in an inactive state and
made ready for use by adding electrolyte, another cell component, or, in the case of a
thermal battery, melting a solidified electrolyte.
Reversal The changing of the normal polarity of a cell or battery.
Secondary Battery A galvanic battery which, after discharge, may be restored to the
charged state by the passage of an electric current through the cell in the opposite direction
to that of discharge.
Self-Discharge The loss of useful capacity of a cell or battery due to internal chemical
action (local action).
Semi-Permeable Membrane A film that will pass selected ions.
Separator An ion permeable, electronically nonconductive, spacer or material which
prevents electronic contact between electrodes of opposite polarity in the same cell.
Series The interconnection of cells or batteries in such a manner that the positive ter-
minal of the first is connected to the negative terminal of the second, and so on. Series
connections increase the voltage of the resultant battery as follows:
V
⫽ n ⫻ V
su
where V
s
⫽ the resultant voltage
n
⫽ the number of cells or batteries connected in series
V
u
⫽ voltage of the unconnected cell or battery
Service Life The period of useful life of a primary battery before a predetermined end-
point voltage is reached.
Shallow Discharge A discharge on a secondary battery equalling only a small part of
its total capacity.
Shape Change Change in shape of an electrode due to migration of active material
during charge/ discharge cycling.
Shedding The loss of active material from a plate during cycling.
Shelf Life The duration of storage under specified conditions at the end of which a cell
or battery still retains the ability to give a specified performance.
A.12 APPENDIX A
Short-Circuit Current The initial value of the current obtained from a battery in a
circuit of negligible resistance.
Sintered Electrode An electrode construction in which active materials are deposited
in the interstices of a porous metal matrix made by sintering metal powder.
SLI Battery A battery designed to start internal combustion engines and to power the
electrical systems in automobiles when the engine is not running (starting, lighting, ig-
nition).
Specific Energy The ratio of the energy output of a cell or battery to its weight (Wh /
kg). (See also ENERGY DENSITY.)
Specific Gravity The specific gravity of a solution is the ratio of the weight of the
solution to the weight of an equal volume of water at a specified temperature.
Specific Power The ratio of the power delivered by a cell or battery to its weight
(W/ kg). (See also POWER DENSITY.)
Spirally Wound Cell A cylindrical cell which uses an electrode structure made by
winding the electrodes and separators into a cylindrical ‘‘jelly-roll’’ construction. (See
Fig. 28.2 and Fig. 14.8).
Standard Electrode Potential The equilibrium value of an electrode potential when all
the constituents taking part in the electrode reaction are in the standard state.
Standby Battery A battery designed for emergency use in the event of a main power
failure.
Starved Electrolyte Cell A cell containing little or no free fluid electrolyte. This
enables gases to reach electrode surfaces during charging and facilitates gas recombina-
tion.
State-of-Charge (SOC) The available capacity in a battery expressed as a percentage
of rated capacity.
Stationary Battery A secondary battery designed for use in a fixed location.
Storage Battery See SECONDARY BATTERY.
Storage Life See SHELF LIFE.
Sulfation Process occurring in lead batteries that have been stored and allowed to self-
discharge for extended periods of time. Large crystals of lead sulfate grow that interfere
with the function of the active materials.
Taper Charge A charge regime delivering moderately high rate charging current when
the battery is at a low state of charge and tapering the charging current to lower rates as
the battery is charged.
Thermal Runaway A condition whereby a battery on charge or discharge will overheat
and destroy itself through internal heat generation caused by high overcharge or overdis-
charging current or other abusive condition.
Traction Battery A secondary battery designed for the propulsion of electric vehicles
or electrically operated mobile equipment operating in a deep-cycle regime.
Transfer Coefficient The transfer coefficient determines what fraction of the electrical
energy of a system resulting from the displacement of the potential from the equilibrium
value that affects the rate of electrochemical transformation. (See Chap. 2.)
Transition Time The time of an electrode process from the initiation of the process at
constant current to the moment an abrupt change in potential occurs signifying that a new
electrode process is controlling the electrode potential.
Transport Number The fraction of the total cell current carried by the cation of an
electrolyte solution is called the ‘‘cation transport number.’’ Similarly, the fraction of the
total current carried by the anion is referred to as the ‘‘anion transport number.’’ Also
called Transference Number.
DEFINITIONS A.13
Trickle Charge A charge at a low rate, balancing losses through a local action and/or
periodic discharge, to maintain a battery in a fully charged condition.
Tubular Plate A battery plate in which an assembly of perforated metal or polymer
tubes holds the active materials.
Unactivated Shelf Life The period of time, under specified conditions of temperature
and environment, that an unactivated or reserve battery can stand before deteriorating
below a specified capacity.
Vent A normally sealed mechanism which allows for the controlled escape of gases
from within a cell.
Vented Cell A cell design incorporating a vent mechanism to relieve excessive pressure
and expel gases that are generated during the operation or abuse of the cell.
Voltage Delay Time delay for a battery to deliver the required operating voltage after
it is placed under load.
Voltage Depression An abnormal low voltage, below the expected value, during the
discharge of a battery.
Voltage Efficiency The ratio of average voltage during discharge to average voltage
during recharge under specified conditions of charge and discharge.
Watthour Capacity The quantity of electrical energy measured in Watthours which
may be delivered by a cell or battery under specified conditions.
Watthour Efficiency The ratio of the Watthours delivered on discharge of a battery to
the Watthours needed to restore it to its original state under specified conditions of charge
and discharge. Also called Energy Efficiency.
Wet Shelf Life The period of time that a battery can stand in the charged or activated
condition before deteriorating below a specified capacity.
Working Voltage The typical voltage or range of voltages of a battery during discharge.
B.1
APPENDIX B
STANDARD REDUCTION
POTENTIALS
TABLE B.1 Standard Reduction Potentials of Electrode
Reactions at 25
⬚C
Electrode reaction E
0
,V
Li
⫹
⫹ e Li
⫺3.01
Rb
⫹
⫹ e Rb
⫺2.98
Cs
⫹
⫹ e Cs
⫺2.92
K
⫹
⫹ e K
⫺2.92
Ba
2
⫹
⫹ 2e Ba
⫺2.92
Sr
2
⫹ 2e Sr
⫺2.89
Ca
2
⫹
⫹ 2e Ca
⫺2.84
Li
⫹ 6C ⫹ e LiC
6
⫺2.8
Na
⫹
⫹ e Na
⫺2.71
Mg(OH)
2
⫹ 2e Mg ⫹ 2OH
⫺
⫺2.67
Mg
2
⫹
⫹ 2e Mg
⫺2.38
Al(OH)
3
⫹ 3e Al ⫹ 3OH
⫺
⫺2.34
Ti
2
⫹
⫹ 2e Ti
⫺1.75
Be
2
⫹
⫹ 2e Be
⫺1.70
Al
3
⫹ 3e Al
⫺1.66
Zn(OH)
2
⫹ 2e Zn ⫹ 2OH
⫺
⫺1.25
Mn
2
⫹
⫹ 2e Mn
⫺1.05
Fe(OH)
2
⫹ 2e Fe ⫹ 2OH
⫺
⫺0.88
2H
2
O ⫹ 2e H
2
⫹ 2OH
⫺
⫺0.83
H
⫹
⫹ M ⫹ e MH
⫺0.83
Cd(OH)
2
⫹ 2e Cd ⫹ 2OH
⫺
⫺0.81
Zn
2
⫹
⫹ 2e Zn
⫺0.76
Ni(OH)
2
⫹ 2e Ni ⫹ 2OH
⫺
⫺0.72
Ga
3
⫹
⫹ 3e Ga
⫺0.52
S
⫹ 2e S
2
⫺
⫺0.48
Fe
2
⫹
⫹ 2e Fe
⫺0.44
Cd
2
⫹
⫹ 2e Cd
⫺0.40
B.2 APPENDIX B
TABLE B.1 Standard Reduction Potentials of Electrode
Reactions at 25
⬚C(Continued)
Electrode reaction E
0
,V
PbSO
4
⫹ 2e Pb ⫹ SO
4
2
⫺
⫺0.36
In
3
⫹
⫹ 3e In
⫺0.34
Tl
⫹
⫹ e Tl
⫺0.34
Co
2
⫹
⫹ 2e Co
⫺0.27
Ni
2
⫹
⫹ 2e Ni
⫺0.23
Sn
2
⫹
⫹ 2e Sn
⫺0.14
Pb
2
⫹
⫹ 2e Pb
⫺0.13
O
2
⫹ H
2
O ⫹ 2e HO
2
⫺
⫹ OH
⫺
⫺0.08
D
⫹
⫹ e D
2
1
–
2
⫺0.003
H
⫹
⫹ e H
2
1
–
2
0.000
HgO
⫹ H
2
O ⫹ 2e Hg ⫹ 2OH
⫺
0.10
CuCl
⫹ e Cu ⫹ Cl
⫺
0.14
AgCl
⫹ e Ag ⫹ Cl
⫺
0.22
␥
-MnO
2
⫹ H
2
O ⫹ e
␣
-MnOOH ⫹ OH
⫺
0.30
Cu
2
⫹
⫹ 2e Cu
0.34
Ag
2
O ⫹ H
2
O ⫹ 2e 2Ag ⫹ 2OH
⫺
0.35
␥
-MnO
2
⫹ H
2
O ⫹ e
-MnOOH ⫹ OH
⫺
0.36
O
2
⫹ H
2
O ⫹ 2e 2OH
⫺
1
–
2
0.40
NiOOH
⫹ H
2
O ⫹ e Ni(OH)
2
⫹ OH
⫺
0.45
Cu
⫹
⫹ e Cu
0.52
I
2
⫹ 2e 2I
⫺
0.54
2AgO
⫹ H
2
O ⫹ 2e Ag
2
O ⫹ 2OH
⫺
0.57
LiCoO
2
⫹ 0.5e → Li
0.5
CoO
2
⫹ 0.5Li
⫹
⬃0.70
Hg
2
⫹
⫹ 2e 2Hg
0.80
Ag
⫹
⫹ e Ag
0.80
O
2
⫹ 4H
⫹
(10
⫺
7
M) ⫹ 4e 2H
2
O
0.82
Pd
2
⫹
⫹ 2e Pd
0.83
Ir
3
⫹
⫹ 3e Ir
1.00
Br
2
⫹ 2e 2Br
⫺
1.08
O
2
⫹ 4H
⫹
⫹ 4e 2H
2
O
1.23
MnO
2
⫹ 4H
⫹
⫹ 2e Mn
2
⫹
⫹ 2H
2
O
1.23
Cl
2
⫹ 2e 2Cl
⫺
1.36
PbO
2
⫹ 4H
⫹
⫹ 2e Pb
2
⫹
⫹ 2H
2
O
1.46
PbO
2
⫹ SO
4
2
⫺
⫹ 4H
⫺
⫹ 2e PbSO
4
⫹ 2H
2
O
1.69
F
2
⫹ 2e 2F
⫺
2.87
C.1
APPENDIX C
ELECTROCHEMICAL EQUIVALENTS
OF BATTERY MATERIALS
TABLE C.1 Electrochemical Equivalents of Battery Materials
Material Symbol
Atomic
no.
Atomic
wt., g
Density,
g/cm
3
Valence
change
Electrochemical
equivalents
Ah/g g/Ah Ah/cm
3
Elements
Aluminium Al 13 26.98 2.699 3 2.98 0.335 8.05
Antimony Sb 51 121.75 6.62 3 0.66 1.514 4.37
Arsenic As 33 74.92 5.73 3 1.79 0.559 10.26
Barium Ba 56 137.34 3.78 2 0.39 2.56 1.47
Beryllium Be 4 9.01 2 5.94 0.168
Bismuth Bi 83 208.98 9.80 3 0.385 2.59 3.77
Boron B 5 10.81 2.54 3 7.43 0.135 18.87
Bromine Br 35 79.90 1 0.335 2.98
Cadmium Cd 48 112.40 8.65 2 0.477 2.10 4.15
Cesium Cs 55 132.91 1.87 3 0.574 1.74 1.07
Calcium Ca 20 40.08 1.54 2 1.34 0.748 2.06
Carbon (graphite) C 6 12.01 2.25 4 8.93 0.112 20.09
Chlorine Cl 17 35.45 1 0.756 1.32
Chromium Cr 24 52.00 6.92 3 1.55 0.647 10.72
Cobalt Co 27 58.93 8.71 2 0.910 1.10 7.93
Copper Cu 29 63.55 8.89 2
1
0.843
0.422
1.19
2.37
7.49
3.75
Fluorine F 9 19.00 1 1.41 0.709
Gold Au 79 197.00 19.3 1 0.136 7.36 2.62
Hydrogen H 1 1.008 1 26.59 0.0376
Indium In 49 114.82 7.28 3 0.701 1.43 5.10
Iodine I 53 126.90 4.94 1 0.211 4.73 1.04
Iron Fe 26 55.85 7.85 2
3
0.96
1.44
1.04
0.694
7.54
11.30
Lead Pb 82 207.2 11.34 2 0.259 3.87 2.94
Lithium Li 3 6.94 0.534 1 3.86 0.259 2.06
Magnesium Mg 12 24.31 1.74 2 2.20 0.454 3.83
Manganese Mn 25 54.94 7.42 2 0.976 1.02 7.24
Mercury Hg 80 200.59 13.60 2 0.267 3.74 3.63
Molybdenum Mo 42 95.94 10.2 6 1.67 0.597 17.03
Nickel Ni 28 58.71 8.6 2 0.913 1.09 7.85
Nitrogen N 7 14.01 3 5.74 0.174
Oxygen O 8 16.00 2 3.35 0.298
Platinum Pt 78 195.09 21.37 4 0.549 1.82 11.73
Potassium K 19 39.10 0.87 1 0.685 1.46 0.59
Silver Ag 17 107.87 10.5 1 0.248 4.02 2.60
Sodium Na 11 22.99 0.971 1 1.17 0.858 1.14
Sulfur S 16 32.06 2.0 2 1.67 0.598 3.34
Tin Sn 50 118.69 7.30 4 0.903 1.11 6.59
Vanadium V 23 50.95 5.96 5 2.63 0.380 15.67
Zinc Zn 30 65.38 7.1 2 0.820 1.22 5.82
Zirconium Zr 40 91.22 6.44 4 1.18 0.851 7.60
C.2 APPENDIX C
TABLE C.1 Electrochemical Equivalents of Battery Materials (Continued )
Material Symbol
Molecular
wt., g
Density,
g/cm
3
Valence
change
Electrochemical
equivalents
Ah/g g/Ah Ah/cm
3
Compounds
Bismuth trioxide Bi
2
O
3
466 8.5 6 0.35 2.86 2.97
Calcium chromate CaCrO
4
156.1 2 0.34 2.91
Carbon monofluoride (CF)
n
(31)
n
2.7 1 0.86 1.16 2.32
Copper chloride CuCl 99 3.5 1 0.27 3.69 0.95
Copper chloride CuCl
2
134.5 3.1 2 0.40 2.50 1.22
Copper fluoride CuF
2
101.6 2.9 2 0.53 1.87 1.52
Copper oxide CuO 79.6 6.4 2 0.67 1.49 4.26
Copper sulfate CuSO
4
159.6 3.6 2
Copper sulfide CuS 95.6 4.6 2 0.56 1.79 2.57
Iron monosulfide FeS 87.9 4.84 2 0.61 1.64 2.95
Iron disulfide FeS
2
119.9 4.87 4 0.89 1.12 4.35
Lead bismuthate Bi
2
Pb
2
O
5
912 9.0 10 0.29 3.41 2.64
Lead chloride PbCl
2
278.1 5.8 2 0.19 5.18 1.12
Lead dioxide PbO
2
239.2 9.3 2 0.22 4.45 2.11
Lead iodide PbI
2
461 6.2 2 0.12 8.60 0.72
Lead oxide Pb
3
O
4
685 9.1 8 0.31 3.22 2.85
Lead sulfide PbS 239.3 7.5 2 0.22 4.46 1.68
Lithiated carbon LiC
6
79.0 1 0.372* 2.69*
Lithium cobalt oxide LiCoO
2
98 0.5 0.137 7.29
Manganese dioxide MnO
2
86.9 5.0 1 0.31 3.22 1.54
Mercuric oxide HgO 216.6 11.1 2 0.247 4.05 2.74
Molybdenum trioxide MoO
3
143 4.5 1 0.19 5.26 0.84
Nickel oxide NiOOH 91.7 7.4 1 0.29 3.42 2.16
Nickel sulfide Ni
3
S
2
240 4 0.47 2.12
Silver chloride AgCl 143.3 5.56 1 0.19 5.26 1.04
Silver chromate Ag
2
CrO
4
331.8 5.6 2 0.16 6.25 0.90
Silver oxide
(monovalent)
Ag
2
O 231.8 7.1 2 0.23 4.33 1.64
Silver oxide (divalent) AgO 123.9 7.4 2 0.43 2.31 3.20
Sulfur dioxide SO
2
64 1.37 1 0.419 2.39
Sulfuryl chloride SO
2
Cl
2
135 1.66 2 0.397 2.52
Thionyl chloride SOCl
2
119 1.63 2 0.450 2.22
Vanadium pentoxide V
2
O
5
181.9 3.6 1 0.15 6.66 0.53
* Based on weight of carbon only.
D.1
TABLE D.1 SI Base Units
Quantity Unit Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature* kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd
* Celsius temperature is, in general, expressed in degrees
Celsius (symbol
⬚C).
Source: From D. G. Fink and W. Beaty (eds.), Standard
Handbook for Engineers, 12th ed., McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 1987;
reproduced from IEEE Standard 268-1982, by permission.
TABLE D.2 SI Prefixes Expressing Decimal Factors
Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol
10
18
10
15
10
12
10
9
10
6
10
3
10
2
10
1
exa
peta
tera
giga
mega
kilo
hecto
deka
E
P
T
G
M
k
h
da
10
⫺
1
10
⫺
2
10
⫺
3
10
⫺
6
10
⫺
9
10
⫺
12
10
⫺
15
10
⫺
18
deci
centi
milli
micro
nano
pico
femto
atto
d
c
m
n
p
f
a
Source: From D. G. Fink and W. Beaty (eds.), Standard Handbook
for Engineers, 12th ed., McGraw-Hill, N.Y., 1987; adapted from IEEE
Standard 268-1982, by permission.
APPENDIX D
STANDARD SYMBOLS
AND CONSTANTS
D.2 APPENDICES
TABLE D.3 Greek Alphabet
Greek
letter
Greek
name
English
equivalent
Greek
letter
Greek
name
English
equivalent
A
␣
〉

⌫
␥
⌬
␦
⌭
⌮
⌯
⌰
⌱
⌲
⌳
⌴
Alpha
Beta
Gamma
Delta
Epsilon
Zeta
Eta
Theta
Iota
Kappa
Lambda
Mu
a
b
g
d
e˘
z
e¯
th
i
k
l
m
⌵
⌶
⌷
⌸
⌹
⌺
⌻
⌼
⌽
⌾
⌿
⍀
Nu
Xi
Omicron
Pi
Rho
Sigma
Tau
Upsilon
Phi
Chi
Psi
Omega
n
x
o˘
p
r
s
t
u
ph
ch
ps
o¯
TABLE D.4 Standard Symbols for Units
Unit Symbol Notes
Ampere A SI unit of electric current.
Ampere-hour Ah
Angstrom A
˚
1A
˚
⫽ 10
⫺
10
m.
Atmosphere, standard atm 1 atm
⫽ 101,325 N / m
2
or Pa.
Atmosphere, technical at at
⫽ kg
ƒ
/cm
2
.
Atomic mass unit (unified) u The (unified) atomic mass unit is defined as one-twelfth of the mass
of an atom of the
12
C nuclide. Use of the old atomic mass unit
(amu), defined by reference to oxygen, is deprecated.
Atto a SI prefix for 10
⫺
18
.
Bar bar 1 bar
⫽ 100,000 N / m
2
.
Barn b 1 b
⫽ 10
⫺
28
m
2
.
Barrel bbl 1 bbl
⫽ 9702 in
3
⫽ 0.15899 m
3
.
This is the standard barrel used for petroleum, etc. A different stan-
dard barrel is used for fruits, vegetables, and dry commodities.
British thermal unit Btu
Calorie (International Table
calorie)
cal
IT
1 cal
IT
⫽ 4.1868 J.
The 9th Confe´rence Ge´ne´rale des Poids et Mesures adopted the
joule as the unit of heat. Use of the joule is preferred.
Calorie (thermochemical calorie) cal 1 cal
⫽ 4.1840 J (see note for International Table calorie).
Centi c SI prefix for 10
⫺
2
.
Centimeter cm
Coulomb C SI unit of electric charge.
Cubic centimeter cm
3
Cycle c
Cycle per second Hz, c/ s See hertz. The name ‘‘hertz’’ is internationally accepted for this
unit; the symbol Hz is preferred to c /s.
Day d
Deci d SI prefix for 10
⫺
1
.
Decibel dB
APPENDICES D.3
TABLE D.4 Standard Symbols for Units (Continued )
Unit Symbol Notes
Degree (temperature):
Degree Celsius
Degree Fahrenheit
⬚C
⬚F
Note that there is no space between the symbol
⬚ and the letter. The
use of the word centrigrade for the Celsius temperature scale
was abandoned by the Confe´rence Ge´ne´rale des Poids et
Mesures in 1948.
Degree Kelvin See kelvin.
Degree Rankine
⬚R
Deka da SI prefix for 10.
Dyne dyn
Electron e This symbol is used in this Handbook to denote an electron. More
conventionally shown as e
⫺
Electronvolt eV
Erg erg
Farad F SI unit of capacitance.
Femto f SI prefix for 10
⫺
15
.
Gauss G The gauss is the electromagnetic CGS unit of magnetic flux density.
Use of SI unit, the tesla, is preferred.
Giga G SI prefix for 10
9
.
Gilbert Gb The gilbert is the electromagnetic CGS unit of magnetomotive
force. Use of the SI unit, the ampere (or ampere turn), is pre-
ferred.
Gram g
Gram per cubic centimeter g/ cm
3
Hecto h SI prefix for 10
2
.
Henry H SI unit of inductance.
Hertz Hz SI unit of frequency.
Hour h
Joule J SI unit of energy.
Joule per kelvin J /K SI unit of heat capacity and entropy.
Kelvin K In 1967 the CGPM gave the name ‘‘kelvin’’ to the SI unit of tem-
perature which had formerly been called ‘‘degree Kelvin’’ and as-
signed it the symbol K (without the symbol
⬚).
Kilo k SI prefix for 10
3
.
Kilogram kg SI unit of mass.
Kilogram-force kg
f
In some countries the name kilopond (kp) has been adopted for this
unit.
Kilohm k
⍀
Kilometer km
Kilometer per hour km/ h
Kilovolt kV
Kilowatt kW
Kilowatthour kWh
Liter L 1 L
⫽ 10
⫺
3
m
3
.
Liter per second L/ s
Lumen lm SI unit of luminous flux.
SI unit of illuminance.
Maxwell Mx The maxwell is the electromagnetic cgs unit of magnetic flux. Use
of the SI unit, the weber, is preferred.
Mega M SI prefix for 10
6
.
Megohm M
⍀
Meter m SI unit of length.
Mho mho CGPM has adopted the name ‘‘siemens’’ (S) for this unit.
Micro
SI prefix for 10
⫺
6
.
Microampere
A
Microgram
g