Kissinger Henry. White House Years

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routes,providedIcouldfigurethemout,whichwasnotalwayseasy.Onlythen

wouldIbroachsubstance.ButevenwithsuchtacticsIlostasoftenasIwon.



JohnEhrlichman,alsoanAssistanttothePresident,consideredminea

cowardlyprocedure.In1971,wantingsomelandownedbytheArmyinHawaiifor

anationalpark,EhrlichmandecidedhewouldteachmehowtodealwithLaird.

FollowingthebestadministrativetheoryofWhiteHousepredominance,

Ehrlichman,withouttroublingtotouchanybureaucraticorCongressionalbases,

transmittedadirectordertoLairdtorelinquishtheland.Lairdtreatedthisclumsy

procedurethewayamatadorhandlesthelungesofabull.Heacceleratedhisplan

tousethelandfortwoArmyrecreationhotels.TogetherwithhisfriendMahon,

LairdputabillthroughtheCongressthatneatlyoverrodethedirectivehehad

received,allthetimeprotestingthathewouldcarryoutanyWhiteHouse orders

permittedbytheCongress.ThehotelsarestillthereunderArmycontrol;the

nationalparkisstillaplanner’sdream.Ehrlichmanlearnedthehardwaythat

therearedimensionsofpoliticalsciencenottaughtatuniversitiesandthatbeing

rightonsubstancedoesnotalwaysguaranteesuccessinWashington.



Asafinelyseasonedpolitician,Lairddidnotbelieveinfightinglosing

battles.Hecouldsolvedailyproblemswithgreatskill;hewaslessconcernedwith

thosethatmightemergetomorrow.Incalmperiodshecouldbemaddening.In

criseshewasmagnificent—strong,loyal,daring,andeloquentinde fending

Presidentialdecisions,includingthosehehadopposedinthecouncilsof

government.LairdservedasSecretaryofDefensewhileourmilitarystrengthwas

underunremittingassaultbytheCongressionalmajority,themedia,academia,

andantidefenselobbies.Hepreservedthesinewsofourstrengthandlaidthe

basisforexpansionwhenthepublicmoodchangedlater.MelvinLairdmaintained

ournationalpowerthroughaperiodofextraordinaryturbulence.Thiswasa

majorachievement.



BelowtheCabinetlevelwasanotherechelonofinfluentialadvisers:the

ChairmanoftheJointChiefsofStaff,GeneralEarleWhee ler,andtheDirectorof

theCentralIntelligenceAgency,RichardHelms.



WhenNixonassumedthePresidency,“Bus”Wheelerwasinhisfinalyearas

ChairmanoftheJointChiefs.HistermshouldhaveendedinJuly1968,but

Johnsongenerouslyextendeditayeartogivehissuccessortheopportunityof

selectingthenextChairman.Wheeler’sintegrityandexperienceprovedso

indispensablethatNixonextendedhistermbyyetanotheryear.Tall,elegant,

calm,Wheelerbythattimewasdeeplydisillusioned.Helookedlikeawary

beagle,hissoftdarkeyeswatchfulfortheoriginofthenextblow.Hehadlived

throughthe1960swhenyoungsystemsanalystshadbeenbroughtintothe

Pentagontoshakeupthemilitaryestablishmentbyquestioninglong‐held

assumptions.Intellectuallythesystemsanalystsweremoreoftenrightthannot;

buttheysoonlearnedthatthewayaquestionisputcanoftenpredeterminean

answer,andtheireffortsinthehallowednameofobjectivityfrequentlywoundup

pushingpersonalpreconceptions.



Misuseofsystemsanalysisapart,therewasatruthwhichseniormilitary

officershadlearnedinalifetimeofservicethatdidnotlenditselftoformal

articulation:thatpowerhasapsychologicalandnotonlyatechnicalcomponent.

Mencanbeledbystatisticsonlyuptoacertainpointandthenmorefundamental

valuespredominate.Inthefinalanalysisthemilitaryprofessionistheartof

prevailing,andwhile inourtimethisrequiredmorecarefulcalculationsthanin

thepast,italsodependsonelementalpsychologicalfactorsthataredifficultto

quantify.Themilitaryfoundthemselvesdesigningweaponsonthebasisof

abstractcriteria,carryingoutstrategiesinwhichtheydidnotreallybelieve,and

ultimatelyconduct inga warthattheydidnotunderstand.Tobesure,themilitary

broughtonsomeoftheirowntroubles.Theypermittedthemselvestobeco‐

optedtooreadily.Theyaccommodatedtothenewdispensationwhileinwardly

resentingit.InVietnam,theyadoptedtheirtraditionalstrategyofattrition

inheritedfromGrant,Pershing,andMarshall;theyneverfullygraspedthat

attritionisnexttoimpossibletoapplyinaguerrillawaragainstanenemywho

doesnothavetofightbecausehecanmeltintothepopulation.Thisplayedinto

thehandsofacivilianleadershipthatimposedevermorerestraints;military

traditionalismandciviliansupersophisticationcombinedtowastewhatever

chancesexistedtobringabouta rapidendtothewaratatimewhenJohnsonstill

enjoyedwidespreadpublicsupport.Thelongerthewarlasted,themorethe

psychologicalbalancewouldtiltagainstusandthemorefrustratingthemilitary

effortbecame.



Throughoutthe1960sthemilitaryweretornbetweenthecommitmentto

civiliansupremacyinculcatedthroughgenerationsofserviceandtheir

premonitionofdisaster,betweentryingtomakethenewsystemworkand

rebellingagainstit.Theyweredemoralizedbytheordertoprocureweaponsin

whichtheydidnotbelieveandbythenecessityoffightingawarwhosepurpose

provedincreasinglyelusive.Anewbreedofmilitaryofficeremerged:menwho

hadlearnedthenewjargon,whocouldpresentthesystemsanalysisarguments

somuchinvogue,moreartic ulatethantheoldergenerationandmoreskillfulin

bureaucraticmaneuvering. Onsomelevelsiteasedcivilian‐militaryrelationships;

onadeeperlevelitdeprivedthepolicyprocessofthesimpler,cruder, but

perhapsmorerelevantassessmentswhichinthefinalanalysisareneededwhen

issuesarereducedtoatestofarms.



EarleWheelerhadpresidedoverthistransitionandwasnotatpeacewith

it.Hebelieved,rightly,thatmilitaryadvicehadnotbeentakenseriouslyenough

inthePentagonoftheSixties,butwhenthetimecametopresentanalternative

heofferednomorethanmarginaladjustmentsofthestatusquo.Heprizedhis

directaccesstothenewPresident,butherarelyusedit—partiallybecauseLaird

discouragedmeetingsbetweenthePresidentandtheChairmaninwhichhedid

notparticipate.Wheeler’sdemurrersmoreoftentooktheformofexpressinghis

concernsprivatelytomethaninopenconfrontationwithhissuperiors.Atthe

June1969meetinginHawaiiwhereNixonsoughtmilitaryapprovalforhis

Vietnamwithdrawalplan,itwasobvioustomethatbothWheelerandGeneral

CreightonAbrams(our Vietnamcommander)couldnothavebeenmoreunhappy.

Everyinstincttoldthemthatitwasimprobablethatwecouldprevailbyreducing

ourstrength.Themoreforceswerewithdrawn,thelesslikelyatolerableoutcome

wouldbeachieved.Buttheydidnothavetheself‐confidencetosaythistotheir

civilianchiefswho,includingme,werearguingthatwithdrawalswereessentialto

sustainthedomesticbasisforanhonorablepoliticalsolution.Wheelerand

Abramsassuagedtheirpremonitionsbypressingforthesmallestpossible

pullback.Butsoontheyfoundtheyhadacquiescedinaplanthatgathereditsown

momentum.Aswithdrawalschedulesbecamepartofthemilitarybudget,they

couldbesloweddownonlyatthepriceofgivingupweaponsmodernization.



Highmilitaryofficersmustalwaysstrikeabalancebetweentheir

convictionsandtheirknowledgethattobeeffectivetheymustsurvivetofight

anotherday.TheirinnateaweoftheCommander‐in‐Chieftemptsthemtofinda

militaryreasonforwhattheyconsiderbarelytolerable.Contrarytosomeofthe

publicmythology,theyrarelychallengetheCommander‐in‐Chief;theyseekfor

excusestosupport,nottoopposehim.InthismannerWheelerhadparticipated

inaseriesofdecisionsanyoneofwhichhewasabletodefend,butthe

cumulativeimpactofwhichhecouldnotreallyjustifytohimself.Hewasa

gentlemantothecore,afineofficerwhohelpedhiscountrythroughtragictimes

andwashimselfinwardlyeatenupbythem.



Wheeler’ssuccessor,AdmiralThomasMoorer,wasamoreelemental

personalitythanWheeler.Hehadspentthe1960sincomma ndpositionswhich,

whilenotwithouttheirfrustrations,didnotproducethephys icaland

psychologicalexhaustionofhigh‐levelWashington.Acannybureaucratic

infighter,Moorermadenopretenseofacademicsubtlety.Ifanythinghe

exaggeratedtheattitudeofaninnocent countryboycaughtina jungleof

sharpies.Whathisviewslackedinelegancetheymadeupinexplicitness.Bythe

timehetookoffice,Vietnamhadbecomearearguardaction.Heconductedits

heartbreakingphaseout withdignity.NoPresidentcouldhavehadamore

stalwartmilitaryadviser.



AnothermemberoftheNationalSecurityteamwasRichardHelms,whom

NixoninheritedasDirectoroftheCentralIntelligenceAgency.IhadmetHelmsin

theKennedyperiodwhen,attherequestoftheWhiteHousein1961,Ihadhad

severalconversationswithhimabouttheBerlincrisis.Hisprofessionalismwas

impressive,thenandlater.WedidnotmeetagainuntilafterIwasappointed

AssistanttothePresidentwhenintheWhiteHouseSituationRoomheexplained

tomethestructureandoperationofhisagency.



AtthetimeHelms’ssituationwasdelicate.EvenmorethantheState

Department,NixonconsideredtheCIAarefugeofIvyLeagueintellectuals

opposedtohim.AndhefeltillateasewithHelmspersonally,sincehesuspected

thatHelmswaswelllikedbytheliberalGeorgetownsocialsettowhichNixon

ascribedmanyofhisdifficult ies.IhadnostrongopinionaboutHelms,butI

opposedhisremo val.IthoughtitwasdangeroustoturntheCIAintoapolitical

plumwhoseDirectorwouldchangewitheachnewPresident.Nixon

compromised.HeagreedtoretainHelmsasCIADirectorbutproposedtodrop

himfromattendanceatNationalSecurityCouncilmeetings.This,inturn,was

stoppedbyLaird,whocorrectlypointedoutthatfortheCounciltoconsidermajor

decisionsintheabsenceoftheDirectorof CentralIntelligencewouldleavethe

PresidentdangerouslyvulnerabletoCongressionalandpubliccriticism.Nixon

relentedonceagain.HeagreedtoletHelmsattendNSCmeetingsbutonlytogive

factualbriefings.Helmswouldnotbepermittedtoofferrecommendationsand

wouldhavetoleavetheCabine tRoomassoonashefinishedhisbriefing.Helms

retainedthisanomalousstatusforsixweeks.Intimethesituationbecametoo

embarrassing,tooartificial,andtooself‐defeatingtobesustained;intelligence

informationwasusuallyhighlyrelevanttothediscussionevenaftertheformal

briefing;afterall,agreatdealdependedontheassessmentoftheconsequences

ofthevariousoptionsbeingconsidered.Helmseventuallybecamearegular

participantintheNationalSecurityCouncilthoughneveraconfidantofthe

President.



MypositionofAssistantforNationalSecurityAffairsinevitablyrequired

closecooperationwiththeCIADirector.ItistheDirectoronwhomthePresident

reliestosupplyearlywarning;itistotheDirectorthattheAssistantfirstturnsto

learnthefactsinacrisisandforanalysisofevents.Andsincedecisionsturnon

theperceptionoftheconsequencesofactions,theCIAassessmentcanalmost

amounttoapolicyrecommendation.



Disciplined,meticulouslyfairanddiscreet,Helmsperformedhisdutieswith

thetotalobjectivity essentialtoaneffectiveintelligenceservice.Foryears,we

hadnodirectsocialcontact;wemetveryinfrequentlyatdinnersinotherpeople’s

homes.IrespectedHelmsnotbecausehewascongenial,thoughhewascertainly

that,butbecauseofhisprofessionalinsightandunflappability.Henever

volunteeredpolicyadvicebeyondthequestionsthatwereaskedhim,though

neverhesitatingtowarntheWhiteHouseofdangersevenwhenhisviewsran

countertothepreconcept ionsofthePresidentorofhissecurityadviser.Hestood

hisgroundwherelessermenmighthaveresortedtoambiguity.Earlyinthe

Administrationaschoolofthoughtdevelopedthatthetriplewarheadonthe

SovietSS‐9intercontinentalmissilewasamultipleindependentlytargetedreentry

vehicle(MIRV)aimedatourMinutemanmissilesilos.TheCIAmaintainedthatthe

warheadscouldnotbetargetedindependently.Ileanedtowardthemore

ominousinterpretation.ToclarifymattersIadoptedaproceduremuchresented

bytraditionalistswhojealouslyguardedtheindependenceoftheestimating

process.IassembledalltheanalystsintheWhiteHouseSituationRoomand

playedthedevil’sadvocate,cross‐examiningtheanalystscloselyandsharply.

Helmsstoodhisground;hewaslaterprovedright.



NooneispromotedthroughtherankstoDirectorofCIAwhoisnot

temperedinmanybattles;Helmswasstrongandhewaswary.Hisurbanitywas

coupledwithextraordinarytenacity;hissmiledidnotalwaysincludehiseyes.He

hadseenadministrationscomeandgoandheunderstoodthatinWashington

knowledgewaspower.Hewaspresumedtoknowa lotandneverdisabused

peopleofthatbelief.AtthesametimeIneverknewhimtomisusehisknowledge

orhispower.Heneverforgotthathisintegrityguaranteedhiseffectiveness,that

hisbestweaponwithPresidentswasareputationforreliability.



CIAanalyseswerenot,however,infallible.Farfrombeingthehawkishband

ofinternationaladventurerssofacilelyportrayedbyitscritics,theAgencyusually

erredonthesideoftheinterpretationfashionableintheWashington

Establishment.InmyexperiencetheCIAdevelopedrationalesforinactionmuch

morefrequentlythanfordaringthrusts.Itsanalysts wereonlytooawarethatno

onehaseverbeenpenalizedfornothavingforeseenanopportunity,butthat

manycareershavebeenblightedfornotpredictingarisk.Thereforethe

intelligencecommunityhasalwaysbeentemptedtoforecastdireconsequences

foranyconceivablecourseofaction,anattitudethatencoura g esparalysisrather

thanadventurism.Aftereverycrisistheresurfacesinthepresssomeobscure

intelligencereportoranalystpurportingtohavepredictedit,onlytohavebeen

foolishlyignoredbythepolicymakers.Whattheseclaimsomittomentionisthat

whenwarningsbecometooroutinetheyloseallsignificance;whenreportsare

notcalledspecificallytotheattentionofthetopleadershiptheyarelostin

bureaucraticbackgroundnoise,particularlysinceforeveryadmonitoryreportone

canprobablyfindalsoitsoppositeinthefiles.



Despitethesereservations,IfoundtheCIAstaffedbydedicatedmenand

womenandabsolutelyindispe nsable.HelmsservedhiscountryandhisPresident

well.Hedeservedbetterthantheaccusationsthatmarredthecloseofhispublic

careerafterthirtyyearsofsuchdistinguishedservice.



ThesemenweretheteamthenewPresidentbroughttogethertofashiona

globalstrategy,allthewhileseekingtoextricatethecountryfromawarlefttoit

byitspredecessors.TheCabinetmembersmetforthefirsttimeonDecember12,

1968,ataget‐acquaintedsessionintheShorehamHotelinWashington.Itwasa

harbingerthatbriefingsoutliningtheproblemsfacingthenewAdministration

weregivennotbytheCabinetofficers(appointedonlythedaybefore)butby

PresidentialAssistants,includingmyself,whohadbeennamedinmostcases

morethana weekearlier.Whethertheseable,astute,strongmencouldhave

formedacohesiveteamunderanyleadershipwillneverbeknown;theircomplex

chiefchosetomanipulatethemasdisparateadviserswhileheundertook his

solitaryjourneywithasystemofpolicymakingthatcentralizedpowerinthe

WhiteHouse.



<<Contents>>



****



GettingOrganized



naradiospeechofOctober24,1968,PresidentialcandidateRichardNixonhad

promisedto“restoretheNationalSecurityCounciltoitspreeminentrolein

nationalsecurityplanning.”Hewentsofarastoattribute“mostofourserious

reversesabroadtotheinabilityordisinclinationofPresidentEisenhower’s

successorstomakeuseofthisimportantcouncil.”WhenthePresident‐elect

announcedmyappointmentonDecember2,1968,herevealedthat“Dr.Kissinger

hassetupwhatIbelieve,orissettingupatthepresenttime,averyexcitingnew

procedureforseeingtoitthatthenextPresidentoftheUnited Statesdoesnot

hearjustwhathewantstohear…”NixondidnotexplainhowIcouldhave

accomplishedallofthisinthethreedaysthathadelapsedsinceIhadaccepted

theappointment.



IagreedwiththePresident‐electontheimportanceofrestoringthe

NationalSecurityCouncilmachinery.AstatementissuedbyGovernorNelson

RockefelleronJune21,1968,duringhiscampaigntorthenominationreflected

myviews:



Thereexistsnoregularstaffprocedureforarrivingatdecisions;instead,adhocgroups

areformedastheneedarises.Nostaffagencytomonitorthecarryingoutofdecisionsis

available.Thereisnofocalpointforlong‐rangeplanningonaninter‐agencybasis.Withouta

centraladministrativefocus,foreignpolicyturnsintoaseriesofunrelateddecisions—crisis‐

oriented,adhocandafter‐the‐factinnature.Webecometheprisonersofevents.



****



WhenIwasappointed,Ididnothaveanyorganizationalplaninmind.My

majorconcernwasthatalargebureaucracy,howeverorganized,tendstostifle

creativity.Itconfuseswisepolicywithsmoothadministration.Inthemodern

statebureaucraciesbecomesolargethattoooftenmoretimeisspentinrunning

themthanindefiningtheirpurposes.Acomplexbureaucracyhasanincentiveto

exaggeratetechnicalcomplexityandminimizethescopeofimportanceofpolitical

judgment;itfavorsthestatusquo,howe verarrivedat,becauseshortofan

unambiguouscatastrophethestatusquohastheadvantageoffamiliarityanditis

neverpossibletoprovethatanothercoursewouldyieldsuperiorresults.It

seemedtomenoaccidentthatmostgreatstatesmenhadbeenlockedin

permanentstrugglewiththeexpertsintheirforeignoffices,forthescopeofthe

statesman’sconceptionchallengestheinclinationoftheexperttowardminimum

risk.



Thecomplexityofmoderngovernmentmakeslargebureaucracies

essential;buttheneedforinnovationalsocreatestheimperativetodefine

purposesthatgobeyondadministrativenorms.Ultimatelythereisnopurely

organizationalanswer;itisaboveallaproblemofleadership.Organizational

remediescannotbythemselvesremovethebiasforwaitingforcrisesandforthe

avoidanceoflong‐rangeplanning.Wesetourselvesthetaskof makinga

consciousefforttoshapetheinternationalenvironmentaccordingtoa

conceptionofAmericanpurposesratherthantowaitforeventstoimposethe

needfordecision.



MyunhappyexperienceasaregularbutoutsideconsultanttoPresident

Kennedyprovedinvaluable.Ihadlearnedthenthedifferencebetweenadviceand

authority.Statesmanshipre quiresaboveallasenseofnuanceandproportion,the

abilitytoperceivetheessentialamongamassofapparentfacts,andanintuition

astowhichofmanyequallyplausiblehypothesesaboutthefutureislikelyto

provetrue.Andauthorityisessential—thestrengthtotakechargeofasequence

ofeventsandtoimposesomedirection.Occasionallyanoutsidermayprovide

perspective;almostneverdoeshehaveenoughknowledgetoadvisesoundlyon

tacticalmoves.BeforeIservedasaconsultanttoKennedy,Ihadbelieved,like

mostacademicians,thattheprocessofdecision‐makingwaslargelyintellectual

andthatallonehadtodowastowalkintothePresident’sofficeandconvince

himofthecorrectnessofone’sviews.ThisperspectiveIsoonrealizedisas

dangerouslyimmatureasitiswidelyheld.Tobesure,inoursystemthePresident

hastheauthoritytomakefinaldecisions;hehaslargerscopefordiscretionthan

thechiefexecutiveofanyotherlargecountry—includingprobablyeventhe

SovietUnion.ButaPresident’sscheduleissohecticthathehaslittletimefor

abstractreflection.Almostallofhiscallersaresupplicantsoradvocates,andmost

oftheircasesareextremelyplausible—whichiswhatgotthemintotheOval

Officeinthefirstplace.Asaresult,oneofthePresident’smostdifficulttasksisto

chooseamongendlessargumentsthatsoundequallyconvincing.Theeasy

decisionsdonotcometohim;theyaretakencareofatlowerlevels.Ashisterm

inofficeprogresses,therefore,exceptinextremecrisisaPresidentcomestobase

hischoicesmoreandmoreontheconfidencehehasinhisadvisers.Hegrows

increasinglyconsciousofbureaucraticandpoliticalpressuresuponhim;issuesof

substancetendtomergeinhismindwiththepersonalitiesembodyingthe

conflictingconsiderations.



APresidentialdecisionisalwaysanamalgamofjudgment,confidenceinhis

associates,andalsoconcernabouttheirmorale.AnyPresidentsoondiscovers

thathisproblemisnotonlytogiveanorderbuttogetitimplemented,andthis

requireswillingcooperation.Bureaucraticallyunpopularorderscanbeevadedin

avarietyofways.Theycanbeinterpretedbyskilledexegesistoyieldaresultas

closeaspossibletowhatthedepartmentmostconcernedwantedinthefirst

place;therecanbeendlessprocrastinationinimplementation;leakscansabotage

apolicybysparkingacontroversy.Andthereistheintangiblehumanquality;cut

offfrommostnormalcontacts,Presidentsareacutelyuncomfortablewith

unhappyassociates—andseektoavoidtheproblemifatallpossible.



TobehelpfultothePresidentthemachineryformakingdecisionsmust

thereforemeetseveralcriteria.Itmustbecompatiblewithhispersonalityand

style.Itmustleadtoaction;desultorytalkwithoutoperationalcontentproduces

paralysis.Aboveall,itmustbesensitivetotheps ychologicalrelationshipbetween

thePresidentandhiscloseadvisers:itmustenablethePresident’sassociatesto

strengthenhisself‐confidenceandyetgivehimrealchoices,tosupplyperspective

andyetnotturneveryissueintoatestofwills.Itmust givescopeforgenuine

Presidentialdiscretionwithoutpromotingthemegalomaniathatoftendeve lops

inpositionswhereoneencountersfewequals.Atthesametime,ifeverysingle

decisionisfunneledintothePresident’soffice,hewilllosethebenefitofthe

technicalcompetenceandaccumulatedexperienceofthepermanentofficials.



Ifkeydecisionsaremadeinformallyatunpreparedmeetings,thetendency

tobeobligingtothePresidentandcooperativewithone’scolleaguesmayvitiate

thearticulationofrealchoices.Thisseemedtomeaproblemwithdecision‐

makingintheKennedyandJohnsonadministrations.Ontheotherhand,ifthe

proceduresgrowtooformal,ifthePresidentishumbleenoughtosubordinatehis

judgmenttoabureaucraticconsensus—as happenedintheEisenhower

Administration—thedangeristhathewillinpracticebegivenonlythechoice

betweenapprovingordisapprovingasinglerecommendedcourse.Sinceheisnot

toldofalternatives,ortheconsequencesofdisapproval,suchasystemdevelopsa 

biastowardthelowestcommondenominator.Itsacrificespurposeto

administrativeefficiency.Thismayberelievedbyoccasionalspasmsof

Presidentialself‐willmeanttoconvinceothers(andhimself)ofhisauthority,but

sucherraticoutburstsareboundtoprovetemporarysincehisrefusaltoaccept

theagreedrecommendationleaveshimwithnooperationalalternative.



PermittingthePresidenttomakea realchoiceseemedtomeessential,not

onlytoestablishgenuinePresidentialauthoritybutalsotoenhancehisleadership

bygivinghimtheself‐assurance thatcomesfromknowingthathehadconsidered

allthevalidalternatives.PuttingbeforethePresidentthefullestrangeofchoices

andtheirlikelyconsequenceswasindeedthemainjobofthenatio nalsecurity

adviser.NoPresidentcanavoidfailuresonsomeproblemssometimeinhisterm;I

neverwanteditsaidthattheyoccurredbecauseofeventswhichwere

foreseeablebuthadneverbeenconsidered.WiththehelpofMortonHalperin,a

youngHarvardcolleague,andGeneralAndrewGoodpaster,aformeradviserto

PresidentEisenhower,Isettowork.



GeneralGoodpasterwasassignedtoNixon’stransitionstaffonatemporary

leaveofabsencefromhispostasDeputyCommanderinSaigon.Hehadhelped

runtheNSCsystemduringapartoftheEisenhowerPresidencyandhadcometo

Nixon’sattentioninthiscapacity.APrincetonPh.D.,hebelongedtothenew

breedofseniorofficersenlightened(ifthatistheword)bypostgraduatestudies

atcivilianuniversities.Thecombinationofmilitarytrainingandscholarlypursuit

canoftenproduceastylesomethodicalthatitbordersonpedantry,butcanalso

giveaperspectivefarwiderthanthatofotherseniorofficers.Itispossiblethat

themilitaryoverestimatedGoodpaster’sacademicsupplenessandthatthe

academicianswerecarriedawaybythephenomenonofanintellectualgeneral. 