Houghton David. Political Psychology: Situations, Individuals, and Cases
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40 Ibid., pp.215–16.
41 Ibid., p.218.
42 Ibid., p.218.
43 Susan Woodward, Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution After The Cold War (Washington
DC: Brookings Institution, 1995).
44 See, for instance, Charles Lindblom, Politics and Markets: The World’s Political Economic
Systems (New York: Basic Books, 1977).
45 Note, though, that Walker Connor had mentioned Yugoslavia as a site of ethnic
unrest as long ago as the mid-1960s (see the beginning of this chapter).
46 Woodward, Balkan Tragedy, p.1.
47 Philip Gourevitch, We Wish To Inform You That Tomorrow We Will Be Killed With Our
Families: Stories From Rwanda (New York: Picador, 1998), p.73.
48 Ibid., p.220. Richard Lerner in his book Final Solutions: Biology, Prejudice, and
Genocide (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State Press, 1992) details the ways in
which biological arguments were used to justify the Holocaust. It is little wonder
that biopolitical arguments were out of fashion for many years after World War II,
since for a long time these evoked images of Nazism.
49 The dehumanizing notion of Tutsis as “cockroaches,” with all the highly negative
connotations attached to this label, is similar.
50 Christopher Browning, Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution
in Poland (New York: HarperCollins, 1992).
51 Monroe, “Review Essay: The Psychology of Genocide,” p.236.
52 See Waller, Becoming Evil, p.244.
53 Dave Grossman, On Killing: The Psychological Cost of Learning To Kill In War And
Society (Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1995).
54 Waller, Becoming Evil, p.249.
14 The Psychology of Racism and Political Intolerance
1 Christopher Federico and Samantha Luks, “The Political Psychology of Race,”
Political Psychology, 26: 661–66, 2005.
2 Susan Fiske, “Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination at the Seam Between
the Centuries: Evolution, Culture, Mind, and the Brain,” European Journal of Social
Psychology, 30: 299–322, 2000, p.302.
3 Ibid.
4 Bob Altemeyer, Right-Wing Authoritarianism (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba
Press, 1981). See also his Enemies of Freedom: Understanding Right-Wing Authoritarian-
ism (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass,1988) and The Authoritarian Specter (Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 1996). For a summary of the “old” approach see
Roger Brown, “The Authoritarian Personality and the Organization of Attitudes,”
and on the newer one see Bob Altemeyer, “The Other ‘Authoritarian Personal-
ity,’ ” both in John Jost and Jim Sidanius (eds.), Political Psychology: Key Readings
(New York: Psychology Press, 2004).
5 Altemeyer, “The Other ‘Authoritarian Personality,’ ” p.87.
6 Altemeyer, “Reducing Prejudice in Right-Wing Authoritarians,” in Mark Zanna and
James Olson (eds.), The Psychology of Prejudice, Volume 7 (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum, 1994).
7 Jim Sidanius and Felicia Pratto, Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social
Hierarchy and Oppression (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
8 Felicia Pratto, Jim Sidanius, Lisa Stallworth, and Bertram Malle, “Social Domin-
ance Orientation: A Personality Variable Predicting Social and Political Attitudes,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67: 741–63, 1994, p.741.
9 James Sidanius, “The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics of
258 Notes
Oppression: A Social Dominance Perspective,” in Shanto Iyengar and William
McGuir, Explorations in Political Psychology (Durham, NC: Duke University Press,
1993), p.202.
10 Felicia Pratto et al., “Social Dominance Orientation: A Personality Variable Pre-
dicting Social and Political Attitudes;” see also Jim Sidanius, Erik Devereaux, and
Felicia Pratto, “A Comparison of Symbolic Racism Theory and Social Dominance
Theory as Explanations for Racial Policy Attitudes,” Journal of Social Psychology,
132: 377–95, 1992.
11 Pratto et al., “Social Dominance Orientation,” p.741.
12 Ibid., p.742.
13 Susan Fiske and Shelley Taylor, Social Cognition (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley,
1984), p.166.
14 Ibid., p.265. See also David Hamilton and Robert Gifford, “Illusory Correlation in
Interpersonal Perception: A Cognitive Basis of Stereotypic Judgments,” Journal of
Experimental Social Psychology, 12: 392–407, 1976.
15 Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition, p.166.
16 See Daniel Katz and Kenneth Braly, “Racial Stereotypes of 100 College Students,”
Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 28: 280–90, 1933.
17 Gordon Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1954).
18 Ibid., p.9.
19 Ibid., p.20.
20 John Dovidio, Peter Glick, and Laurie Rudman (eds.), On The Nature of Prejudice:
Fifty Years After Allport (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005), pp.1–2.
21 For a good summary, see Susan Fiske, “Social Cognition and the Normality of
Prejudgment,” in Dovidio et al. (eds.), On The Nature of Prejudice.
22 Allport, The Nature of Prejudice.
23 Patricia Devine, “Stereotypes and Prejudice: Their Automatic and Controlled
Components,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56: 5–18, 1989.
24 Russell Fazio, Joni Jackson, Bridget Dunton, and Carol Williams, “Variability in
Automatic Activation as an Unobtrusive Measure of Racial Attitudes: A Bona Fide
Pipeline?,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69: 1013–27, 1995.
25 Ibid., p.1025.
26 Jon Hurwitz and Mark Peffley, “Public Perceptions of Race and Crime: The Role of
Racial Stereotypes,” American Journal of Political Science, 41: 375–401, 1997.
27 See Susan Fiske and Steven Neuberg, “A Continuum of Impression Formation,
From Category-Based to Individuating Processes: Influences of Information and
Motivation on Attention and Interpretation,” in Mark Zanna (ed.), Advances in
Experimental Social Psychology, Volume 23 (New York: Academic Press, 1990).
28 Hurwitz and Peffley, “Public Perceptions of Race and Crime,” p.381.
29 Molly Tapias, Jack Glaser, Dacher Keltner, Kristen Vasquez, and Thomas Wickens,
“Emotion and Prejudice: Specific Emotions Towards Outgroups,” Group Processes &
Intergroup Relations, 10: 27–39, 2007.
30 See for instance Diane Mackie and David Hamilton (eds.), Affect, Cognition and
Stereotyping: Interactive Processes in Group Perception (San Diego, CA: Academic Press,
1993); Mackie, D.M., and Eliot Smith (eds.), From Prejudice to Intergroup Emotions:
Differentiated Reactions To Social Groups (Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press, 2002).
31 Cara Talaska, Susan Fiske, and Shelly Chaiken, “Legitimating Racial Discrimination:
A Meta-Analysis of the Racial Attitude-Behavior Literature Shows That Emotions,
Not Beliefs, Best Predict Discrimination,” Social Justice Research: Social Power in
Action (in press). The author thanks Susan Fiske for providing a copy of this article.
32 Ibid.
33 Lasana Harris and Susan Fiske, “Dehumanizing the Lowest of the Low: Neuro-
Imaging Responses to Extreme Outgroups,” Psychological Science, 17: 847–53, 2006;
Notes 259
see also Harris and Fiske, “Social Groups that Elicit Disgust Are Differentially
Processed in MPFC,” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 2: 45–51, 2007.
34 Lasana and Harris, “Dehumanizing the Lowest of the Low,” p.849.
35 Allen Hart, Paul Whalen, Lisa Shin, Sean McInerney, Hakan Fischer, and Scott
Rauch, “Differential Response in the Human Amygdala to Racial Outgroup vs
Ingroup Face Stimuli,” Neuroreport, 11: 2351–55, 2000, p.2354.
36 Elizabeth Phelps, Kevin O’Connor, William Cunningham, Sumie Funuyama,
Christopher Gatenby, John Gore, and Mahzarin Banaji, “Performance on Indirect
Measures of Race Evaluation Predicts Amygdala Activation,” Journal of Cognitive
Neuroscience, 12: 729–38, 2000, p.731.
37 Matthew Lieberman, Ahmad Hariri, Johanna Jarcho, Naomi Eisenberger, and
Susan Bookheimer, “An fMRI Investigation of Race-Related Amygdala Activity in
African-American and Caucasian American Individuals,” Nature: Neuroscience, 8:
720–22, 2005.
38 Ibid., p.722.
39 Paul Sniderman and Thomas Piazza, The Scar of Race (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1993).
40 Ralph Adolphs, “Cognitive Neuroscience of Human Social Behavior,” Nature
Reviews: Neuroscience, 4: 165–78, 2003, p.169.
41 Darren Schreiber, “Race and Social Norms: An fMRI Study,” paper presented at the
International Society of Political Psychology Conference, Portland, OR, 2007.
42 Lawrence Bobo, “Whites’ Opposition to Busing: Symbolic Racism or Realistic
Group Conflict?,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45: 1196–210, 1983;
see also Bobo and Mia Tuan, Prejudice in Politics: Group Position, Public Opinion, and the
Wisconsin Treaty Rights Dispute (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006).
43 Ibid., p.1198.
44 Henri Tajfel, Human Groups and Social Categories (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1981); Tajfel, Social Identity and Intergroup Relations (Cambridge, England:
Cambridge University Press, 1982).
45 James Gibson, “Do Strong Group Identities Fuel Intolerance? Evidence from the
South African Case,” Political Psychology, 27: 665–705, 2006.
46 Ibid., p.667.
47 Ibid., p.684.
48 Paul Sniderman, Thomas Piazza, Philip Tetlock, and Ann Kendrick, “The New
Racism,” American Journal of Political Science, 35: 423–47, 1991, p.424.
49 Donald Kinder and David Sears, “Prejudice and Politics: Symbolic Racism versus
Racial Threats to the Good Life,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40:
414–31, 1981; David Sears and P.J. Henry, “Over Thirty Years Later: A Con-
temporary Look at Symbolic Racism and its Critics,” Advances in Experimental Social
Psychology, 37: 95–150, 2005; David Sears, Coletle van Laar, Mary Carillo, and
Rick Kosterman, “Is it Really Racism? The Origins of White Americans’ Opposition
to Race Targeted Policies,” Public Opinion Quarterly, 61: 16–53, 1997.
50 Paul Sniderman et al., “The New Racism.”
51 Jeremy Wood, “Is ‘Symbolic Racism’ Racism? A Review Informed by Intergroup
Behavior,” Political Psychology, 15: 673–86, 1994, p.677.
52 George Marcus, John Sullivan, Elizabeth Theiss-Morse, and Sandra Wood, With
Malice Toward Some: How People Make Civil Liberties Judgments (New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1995), p.8.
53 Samuel Stouffer, Communism, Conformity and Civil Liberties: A Cross Section of the Nation
Speaks its Mind (New York: Doubleday, 1955).
54 John Sullivan, James Piereson, and George Marcus, Political Tolerance and American
Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), p.28.
55 Ibid.
260 Notes
56 Paul Sniderman, Richard Brody, and Philip Tetlock, Reasoning and Choice: Explorations
in Political Psychology (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
57 Ibid., p.220.
58 Ibid., pp.134–36.
59 See Muslim Americans: Middle Class and Mostly Mainstream, Pew Research Center, May
22, 2007, p.38, available online at http://pewresearch.org/assets/pdf/muslim-
americans.pdf.
60 James Gibson, “Political Intolerance and Political Repression During the McCarthy
Red Scare,” American Political Science Review, 82: 511–29, 1988.
61 Bernard Lewis, The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror (New York: Random
House, 2003), p.xv.
62 See Erik Nisbet and James Shanahan, “MSRG Special Report: Restrictions on Civil
Liberties, Views of Islam, and Muslim Americans,” December 2004, available
online at http://www.eriknisbet.com/pdfs/report1a.
63 Only 27 percent of Stouffer’s respondents believed that Communists should be
permitted the liberty to do this.
64 Erik Nisbet, Ronald Ostman, and James Shanahan, “Shaping the Islamic Threat:
The Influence of Ideology, Religiosity, and Media Use on Public Opinion Toward
Islam and Muslim Americans,” in Abdulkader Sinno (ed.), Muslims in Western Politics
(Bloomington, IN: University of Indiana Press, 2008).
65 Marcus et al., With Malice Toward Some.
66 Ibid., p.23.
15 The Psychology of Terrorism
1 Rex Hudson, The Sociology and Psychology of Terrorism: Who Becomes a Terrorist And
Why? A report prepared under an interagency agreement by the Federal Research
Division, Library of Congress (Washington, D.C.: The Division, 1999), p.17.
2 John Horgan, “The Search for The Terrorist Personality,” in Andrew Silke (ed.),
Terrorists, Victims and Society: Psychological Perspectives on Terrorism and Its Consequences
(Chichester, UK: Jon Wiley, 2003).
3 See http://www.csmonitor.com/specials/terrorism/lite/expert.html.
4 For overviews of these approaches, see for instance Andrew Silke, “Cheshire-Cat
Logic: The Recurring Theme of Terrorist Abnormality in Psychological Research,”
Psychology, Crime and Law, 4: 51–69, 1998 and Hudson, The Sociology and Psychology
of Terrorism.
5 See for instance Jerrold Post, “Terrorist Psycho-Logic: Terrorist Behavior as a
Product of Psychological Forces,” in Walter Reich (ed.), Origins of Terrorism: Psych-
ologies, Ideologies, Theologies, States Of Mind (New York: Cambridge University Press,
1990) and Leaders and Their Followers in a Dangerous World: The Psychology of Political
Behavior (New York: Cornell University Press, 2004). Post now maintains that
terrorists are psychologically “normal,” while also insisting that most terrorists
share narcissistic characteristics.
6 John Dollard, Leonard Doob, Neal Miller, O.H. Mowrer, and Robert Sears, Frus-
tration and Aggression (New Haven, CN: Institute of Human Relations, 1939). This
theory is also often attributed to Leonard Berkowitz, “Some Aspects of Observed
Aggression,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 12; 359–69, 1965 and to Ted
Robert Gurr, Why Men Rebel (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970).
7 Richard Pearlstein, The Mind of the Political Terrorist (Wilmington, DE: SR Books,
1991).
8 Hudson, The Sociology and Psychology of Terrorism, p.17.
9 Konrad Kellen, On Terrorists and Terrorism (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation,
1982).
Notes 261
10 Hudson, The Sociology and Psychology of Terrorism, p.17.
11 Of recent notable work in this area, see in particular Silke (ed.), Terrorists, Victims
and Society; Fathali Moghaddam and Anthony Marsella (eds.), Understanding Terrorism:
Psychosocial Roots, Consequences, and Interventions (Washington D.C.: American Psy-
chological Association, 2004) and John Horgan, The Psychology of Terrorism (London:
Taylor & Francis, 2005).
12 John Horgan, “The Search for The Terrorist Personality,” p.7.
13 Andrew Silke, “Becoming a Terrorist,” in Silke, (ed.), Terrorists, Victims and Society,
p.32.
14 Ibid., p.10.
15 Hudson, The Sociology and Psychology of Terrorism, p.27.
16 Ibid.
17 Maxwell Taylor and Ethel Quayle, Terrorist Lives (London and Washington D.C.:
Brasseys, 1994).
18 Ibid., p.90.
19 Fareed Zakaria, The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad (New
York: W.W. Norton, 1993).
20 Tore Bjorgo (ed.), Root Causes of Terrorism (Oslo: Norwegian Institute of International
Affairs, 2003), quoted in Horgan, The Psychology of Terrorism, p.83.
21 Zakaria, The Future of Freedom, p.137.
22 Horgan, The Psychology of Terrorism, p.84.
23 Ibid., p.88.
24 Ami Pedahzur, Suicide Terrorism (Malden, MA: Polity Press, 2005), p.8.
25 Assaf Moghadam, “The Roots of Suicide Terrorism: A Multi-Causal Approach,” in
Pedahzur (ed.), Root Causes of Suicide Terrorism: The Globalization of Martyrdom (New
York: Routledge, 2006), p.82.
26 See for instance Pedahzur, Suicide Terrorism; Robert Pape, Dying To Win: The Strategic
Logic of Suicide Terrorism (New York: Random House, 2005); Mia Bloom, Dying to
Kill: The Allure of Suicide Terror (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005); Diego
Gambetta (ed.), Making Sense of Suicide Missions (New York: Oxford University
Press, 2005); Pedahzur, Root Causes of Suicide Terrorism.
27 Pape, Dying To Win, p.4.
28 J. Philippe Ruston, “Ethnic Nationalism, Evolutionary Psychology and Genetic
Similarity Theory,” Nations and Nationalism, 11: 489–507, 2005, p.501.
29 Martha Crenshaw, “The Logic of Terrorism: Terrorist Behavior as a Product of
Strategic Choice,” in Reich (ed.), Origins of Terrorism.
30 Mohammed Hafez, “Dying To Be Martyrs: The Symbolic Dimension of Suicide
Terrorism,” in Pedahzur, Root Causes of Suicide Terrorism, pp.56–60.
31 Moghadam, “The Roots of Suicide Terrorism.”
32 Ibid., p.83.
33 Vamik Volkan, “September 11 and Societal Aggression,” Group Analysis, 35: 456–83,
2002.
34 Mohammed Hafez, Manufacturing Human Bombs: The Making of Palestinian Suicide
Bombers (Washington DC: United States Institute of Peace, 2005).
35 Moghadam, “The Roots of Suicide Terrorism,” p.93.
36 Ibid., pp.93–96.
37 Ibid., p.97.
38 Martha Crenshaw, “The Causes of Terrorism,” Comparative Politics, 13: 379–99,
1981; see also Silke, “Becoming a Terrorist.”
39 On this point, see Maxwell Taylor, The Terrorist (New York: Brasseys, 1988), p.140.
40 Andrew Silke, “An Introduction To Terrorism Research,” in Silke (ed.), Research on
Terrorism: Trends, Achievements and Failures (London: Frank Cass, 2004), p.1.
41 Martha Crenshaw, “Questions to be Answered, Research to be Done, Knowledge
262 Notes
to be Applied,” in Reich (ed.), Origins of Terrorism, p.259. For an attempt to do this
in the case of hostage taking, see David Patrick Houghton, “Explaining the Origins
of the Iran Hostage Crisis: A Cognitive Perspective,” Terrorism and Political Violence,
18: 259–79, 2006.
16 The Psychology of International Relations
1 James Goldgeier, “Psychology and Security,” Security Studies, 6: 137–66, 1997.
2 Ole Holsti, “The Political Psychology of International Politics: More than A
Luxury,” Political Psychology, 10: 495–500, 1989. “Structural” is a more common
term than “situational” in the study of IR, but it covers the same phenomenon,
although as we shall see situationism covers more than the structure of the inter-
national system.
3 See for instance Scott Burchill, Richard Devetak, Andrew Linklater, Matthew
Paterson, Christian Reús-Smit, and Jacqui True, Theories of International Relations,
second edition (New York: Palgrave, 2001) and Paul Viotti and Mark Kauppi,
International Relations Theory: Realism, Pluralism, Globalism, and Beyond, third edition
(New York: Prentice Hall, 1998).
4 Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, MA: Addison Wesley,
1979). For an excellent article which contrasts the neorealist and psychological
perspectives towards international relations, see Brian Ripley, “Psychology, For-
eign Policy, and International Relations Theory,” Political Psychology, 14: 403–16,
1993.
5 John Mearsheimer, “Back To The Future: Instability in Europe After the Cold
War,” International Security, 15: 5–56, 1990; for a shorter and more readable
version, see his “Why We Will Soon Miss The Cold War,” Atlantic Monthly, 266:
35–50, 1990.
6 Waltz, Theory of International Politics, p.118; see also the various contributions to
Robert Keohane (ed.), Neorealism and its Critics (New York: Columbia University
Press, 1986).
7 Martin Hollis and Steve Smith, Explaining and Understanding International Relations
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1990).
8 Graham Allison and Philip Zelikow, Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile
Crisis, second edition (New York: Longman, 1999).
9 See for instance David Patrick Houghton, “Essence of Excision: A Critique of the
New Version of Essence of Decision,” Security Studies, 10: 162–91, 2000.
10 Ripley, “Psychology, Foreign Policy and International Relations Theory,” p.405.
11 Richard Snyder, H.W. Bruck, and Burton Sapin (eds.), Foreign Policy Decision-
Making: An Approach To The Study of International Politics (New York: Free Press,
1962).
12 Joseph de Rivera, The Psychological Dimension of Foreign Policy (Columbus, OH:
Charles Merrill, 1968).
13 Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics, (Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 1976) p.146.
14 Ibid., p.92.
15 Ibid., p.266.
16 Richard Ned Lebow, Between Peace and War: The Nature of International Crisis
(Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981).
17 Ibid., p.25.
18 Jacques Hymans, The Psychology of Nuclear Proliferation: Identity, Emotions and Foreign
Policy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006).
19 Ibid., p.21.
20 Ibid., pp.21–25.
Notes 263
21 Ibid., p.25.
22 Ibid., pp.62–63.
23 Robert Jervis, “Review of The Psychology of Nuclear Proliferation,” Political Psychology,
28: 269–72, 2007.
24 Reuters, “Iran Says More UN Steps Won’t Stop Its Nuclear Work,” June 3, 2007.
25 Ted Reynolds, “Understanding Nuclear Weapons Proliferation,” unpublished
manuscript.
26 Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, “Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision
Under Risk,” Econometrica, 47: 263–91, 1979.
27 Robert Jervis, “Political Implications of Loss Aversion,” Political Psychology, 13:
187–204, 1992, p.187.
28 Rose McDermott, Risk-Taking in International Politics: Prospect Theory in American
Foreign Policy (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1998); see also
McDermott, “Prospect Theory in Political Science: Gains and Losses from the First
Decade,” Political Psychology, 29: 289–312, 2004.
29 Rose McDermott, “Prospect Theory in International Relations: The Iranian
Hostage Rescue Mission,” Political Psychology, 13: 237–63, 1992, pp.241–42.
30 Barbara Farnham, Roosevelt and the Munich Crisis: A Study of Political Decision-Making
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997).
31 For assessments of the strengths and weaknesses of prospect theory generally,
see Jervis, “Political Implications of Loss Aversion,” Jack Levy, “Prospect Theory
and International Relations: Theoretical Applications and Analytical Problems,”
Political Psychology, 13, 283–310, 1992, and Eldar Shafir, “Prospect Theory and
Political Analysis: A Psychological Perspective,” Political Psychology, 13, 311–22,
1992. The McDermott, Jervis, Levy, and Shafir articles are all part of a special
edition of Political Psychology devoted to prospect theory.
32 On this point, see for instance Yaacov Vertzberger, Risk Taking and Decision Making:
Foreign Military Intervention Decisions (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press,
1998), p.30.
33 Richard Ned Lebow and Janice Gross Stein, We All Lost The Cold War (Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994); see also Richard Herrmann, “Image Theory
and Strategic Interaction in International Relations,” pp.300–3, in David Sears,
Leonie Huddy, and Robert Jervis (eds.), Oxford Handbook of Political Psychology
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2003).
34 Christopher Achen and Duncan Snidal, “Rational Deterrence Theory and Com-
parative Case Studies,” World Politics, 41: 143–69, 1989, p.149.
35 John Mearsheimer, “Why We Will Soon Miss The Cold War.”
36 Richard Ned Lebow and Janice Gross Stein, “Rational Deterrence Theory: I Think,
Therefore I Deter,” World Politics, 41: 208–24, 1989.
37 Ibid., p.211.
38 Jonathan Mercer, Reputation and International Politics (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University
Press, 1996).
39 Ibid., p.213.
40 Ibid., p.214.
41 Ralph White, “Empathizing With the Soviet Government,” in White (ed.), Psych-
ology and the Prevention of Nuclear War: A Book of Readings (New York: New York
University Press, 1986), p.82.
42 Ralph White, Fearful Warriors: A Psychological Profile of U.S.–Soviet Relations (New
York: Free Press, 1984), p.160; see also James Blight and Janet Lang, The Fog of War:
Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005),
p.28.
43 Apart from works already cited, see for instance Ralph White, Nobody Wanted War:
Misperception in Vietnam and Other Wars (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1968);
264 Notes
Robert Jervis, “Hypotheses on Misperception,” World Politics, 20(3): 454–79, 1968;
Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics; Jack Levy, “Misperception
and the Causes of War: Theoretical Linkages and Analytical Problems,” World
Politics, 36: 76–99, 1983; Yaacov Vertzberger, The World In Their Minds: Information
Processing, Cognition and Perception in Foreign Policy Decisionmaking (Stanford, CA:
Stanford University Press, 1990), especially Chapter 1; and the edition of Peace and
Conflict on empathy and Ralph White, including Richard Wagner, “The Earliest
Pioneer: Ralph K. White,” Peace and Conflict, 10: 313–15, 2004; M.G. Wessells,
M.D. Roe, and S. McKay, “Pioneers in Peace Psychology: Ralph K. White,” Peace
and Conflict, 10: 317–34, 2004; M.B. Smith, “Realistic Empathy: A Key to Sensible
International Relations,” Peace and Conflict, 10: 335–39, 2004; James Blight and Janet
Lang, “Lesson Number One: ‘Empathize With Your Enemy,’ ” Peace and Conflict,
10: 349–68, 2004; and Ralph White, “Misperception and War,” Peace and Conflict,
10: 399–409, 2004.
44 See Robert McNamara and James Blight, Wilson’s Ghost: Reducing the Risk of Con-
flict, Killing and Catastrophe in the 21
st
Century (New York: Public Affairs, 2001),
pp.64–73; Blight and Lang, The Fog of War, pp.27–57.
45 James Blight and Janet Lang, The Fog of War: Lessons From the Life of Robert S.
McNamara (New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 2005); McNamara and Blight, Wilson’s
Ghost.
17 Conclusion: A Personal View
1 We also cannot discount the possibility that in at least some cases biases are driven
by factors internal to political science itself, of course (in other words, fads and
fashions).
2 Morton Hunt, The Story of Psychology, updated and revised edition (New York:
Anchor Books, 2007).
3 Lauren Slater, Opening Skinner’s Box: Great Psychological Experiments of the Twentieth
Century (New York: W.W. Norton, 2004), p.98.
4 John Darley and Bibb Latané, “Bystander Intervention in Emergencies: Diffusion
of Responsibility,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8: 377–83, 1968;
Latané and Darley, The Unresponsive Bystander: Why Doesn’t He Help? (Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1970).
5 Darley and Latané, “Bystander Intervention in Emergencies.”
6 See Hunt, The Story of Psychology, pp.483–84.
7 John Darley and Daniel Batson, “From Jerusalem to Jericho: A Study of Situ-
ational and Dispositional Variables in Helping Behavior,” Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 27: 100–8, 1973.
8 Ibid., p.105.
9 Philip Zimbardo, The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil (New
York: Random House, 2007), p.211.
10 Darley and Latané, The Unresponsive Bystander.
11 See Chapter 4 for a discussion of these.
12 Ole Holsti, “Cognitive Process Approaches to Decision-Making: Foreign Policy
Actors Viewed Psychologically,” American Behavioral Scientist, 20: 11–32, 1976,
p.18.
13 Graham Allison and Philip Zelikow, Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile
Crisis, second edition (New York: Longman, 1999).
14 See also Jacques Hymans, The Psychology of Nuclear Proliferation: Identity, Emotion and
Foreign Policy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp.17–18.
15 Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics (Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 1976), pp.19–20.
Notes 265
16 George Farris, “The Drunkard’s Search in Behavioral Science,” Compensation Benefits
Review, 1: 29–33, 1969; Robert Jervis, “The Drunkard’s Search,” in Shanto Iyengar
and William McGuire (eds.), Explorations in Political Psychology (Durham, NC:
Duke University Press, 1993); Samuel Popkin, “Decision Making in Presidential
Primaries,” in Iyengar and McGuire, Explorations in Political Psychology.
17 Richard Betts, “Conventional Strategy: New Critics, Old Choices,” International
Security, 7: 140–62, 1983, p.142.
18 Richard Clarke, Against All Enemies: Inside America’s War on Terror (New York: Free
Press, 2004), p.31.
19 Bob Woodward, Plan of Attack (New York; Simon & Schuster, 2004), p.26.
20 See “Clarke’s Take on Terror,” March 21, 2004, CBS News website at http://
www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/03/19/60minutes/main607356.shtml.
266 Notes
Index
2001: A Space Odyssey (film) 116
“Abnormality” thesis: and genocidal acts
207; and “terrorist personality”
12–13, 201–202, 205–206, 207
Abu Ghraib scandal 3–4, 10, 16, 17,
19–20, 44, 56, 57, 63–67; “bad
apple” interpretation of 56, 66;
parallels with the Stanford
experiment 57, 64–65; photographs
of 63–64; worldwide disgust caused
by 3, 63; see also Stanford experiment.
A Clockwork Orange (book and film)
39–40, 42; characters of Alex and
Brodsky in 39–40; “Ludovico
Technique” in 42
Access: problem of 99, 107
Achen, Christopher 227
Acheson, Dean 231
Action dispensability 101–102
Actor dispensability 101–102
Adams, Sherman 108
Adolphs, Ralph 148, 193
Adorno, Theodore 47
“Adult Children of Alcoholics”
syndrome 97–98
Affect 12, 132–142 passim; and racism
190–193; see also emotion
Affective Intelligence theory 137–138
“Agentic state” 52
Afghanistan, U.S. war in 21, 239–240
Ahmadinejad, Mahmoud 112, 224
Airplane II (film) 7
Alcoholism: behavioral conditioning
and 43; of George Best 43; of George
W. Bush 85–86; of Roger Clinton 98
Allison, Graham 71, 219
Allport, Gordon 188–189
Al-Qaeda 16, 21, 209
Altemeyer, Bob 185–186
Amen, Daniel 151
An Economic Theory of Democracy
(Downs) 29
Analogical reasoning 126–129; and
contributions of Robert Jervis 127;
and contributions of Yuen Khong
127–128; as source of cognitive error
127, 129; connections to schema
theory 130–131; defined 31;
relationship to attribution theory
131; role in Bay of Pigs decision-
making 80; role in Iran hostage crisis
decision-making 128–129; role in
Vietnam decision-making 80,
127–128; versus rule-based
reasoning 129–130; see also
analogies.
Analogies 12, 31, 126–129; and “AE
Framework” 128; emotional aspects
of 139; functions of 128; see also
analogical reasoning.
Analogies At War (Khong) 127–128,
139–140
Anderson, James William 89, 100
Anger, Per 54
Ansolabehere, Stephen 30
Arbenz, Giacomo 80
Arblaster, Anthony x
Arendt, Hannah x, 17, 51
Aristotle 22
Artificial Intelligence (AI) 115; and the
human mind’s capabilities 115–116
Asch, Solomon: as a situationist 47;
influence on Janis and Milgram 71;
line experiments of 47–49, 71, 237,
238