Houghton David. Political Psychology: Situations, Individuals, and Cases
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18 Ibid., p.22.
19 Ibid., p.25.
20 Robert Dallek, Flawed Giant: Lyndon Johnson and His Times 1961–1973 (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1998), p.x.
21 Dallek, Flawed Giant, p.627.
22 Ibid., p.283.
23 Ibid., p.627.
24 Richard Goodwin, Remembering America: A Voice From The Sixties (New York: Peren-
nial Books, 1989).
25 Ibid., p.393.
26 Ibid., p.394.
27 D. Jablow Hershman, Power Beyond Reason: The Mental Collapse of Lyndon Johnson (Fort
Lee, NJ: Barricade Books, 2002).
28 James David Barber, The Presidential Character: Predicting Performance in the White
House, third edition (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1992).
29 Paul Kowert, “Where Does The Buck Stop? Assessing the Impact of Presidential
Personality,” Political Psychology, 17: 421–52, 1996.
30 Paul Fick, The Dysfunctional President: Inside the Mind of Bill Clinton (New York: Birch
Lane Press, 1995), pp.11–12.
31 James William Anderson, “The Methodology of Psychological Biography,” Journal
of Interdisciplinary History, 11: 455–75, 1981.
32 Sally Patel, “The Perils of Putting National Leaders on the Couch,” New York Times,
June 29, 2004.
33 Anderson, “The Methodology of Psychological Biography,” p.455, pp.456–60.
8 Personality and Beliefs
1 Fred Greenstein, “The Impact of Personality on Politics: An Attempt to Clear
Away The Underbrush,” American Political Science Review, 61: 629–41, 1967.
2 David Winter, “Things I’ve Learned About Personality From Studying Political
Leaders At A Distance,” Journal of Personality, 73: 557–84, 2005. See also Mark
Schafer, “Issues in Assessing Psychological Characteristics at a Distance,” Political
Psychology, 21: 511–27, 2000.
3 Paul Kowert, “Where Does The Buck Stop? Assessing the Impact of Presidential
Personality,” Political Psychology, 17: 421–52, 1996.
4 Ibid., pp.424–27. The Q-sort approach is so called because it requires experts, or
“judges” as Kowert terms them, to sort through a pack of cards. Each card has a
personality trait on it, and the expert selects the cards that best describe the
personality of the individual leader in question.
5 Peter Suedfeld and Philip Tetlock, “Integrative Complexity of Communications
in International Crises,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, 21: 169–84, 1977. Suedfeld’s
work on this topic since the 1960s is vast, but of his more recent applications of
the concept see for instance “President Clinton’s Policy Dilemmas: A Cognitive
Analysis,” Political Psychology, 15: 337–49, 1994.
6 Ibid., p.172. Cognitive complexity has also been linked to the sophistication and
kind of historical analogies used by leaders. See Stephen Dyson and Thomas
Preston, “Individual Characteristics of Political Leaders and the Use of Analogy in
Foreign Policy Decision Making,” Political Psychology, 27: 265–88, 2006.
7 Winter, “Things I’ve Learned About Personality From Studying Political Leaders
At A Distance,” p.570.
8 David Winter and Abigail Stewart, “Content Analysis as a Method of Studying
Political Leaders,” in Margaret Hermann (ed.), A Psychological Examination of Political
Leaders (New York: Free Press, 1977).
248 Notes
9 Margaret Hermann, “Explaining Foreign Policy Behavior Using the Personal
Characteristics of Political Leaders,” International Studies Quarterly, 24: 7–46, 1980.
10 Ibid., p.8.
11 Margaret Hermann, “Assessing Leadership Style: Trait Analysis,” in Jerrold Post
(ed.), The Psychological Assessment of Political Leaders (Ann Arbor, MI: University of
Michigan Press, 2003).
12 Stephen Dyson, “Personality and Foreign Policy: Tony Blair’s Iraq Decisions,”
Foreign Policy Analysis, 2: 289–306, 2006.
13 Ibid., p.303.
14 Margaret Hermann and Thomas Preston, “Presidents, Advisers, and Foreign Policy:
The Effect of Leadership Style on Executive Arrangements,” Political Psychology, 15:
75–96, 1994, p.81.
15 Thomas Preston, The President and His Inner Circle: Leadership Style and the Advisory
Process in Foreign Affairs (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001), pp.16–17.
16 Ibid., pp.22–23.
17 Yaacov Vertzberger, The World in Their Minds: Information Processing, Cognition, and
Perception in Foreign Policy Decisionmaking (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press,
1990), p.114.
18 This article, originally published in The Journal of Conflict Resolution in 1962,
was republished as Ole Holsti, “The Belief System and National Images: A Case
Study,” in James Rosenau (ed.), International Poltics and Foreign Policy, 2nd edition
(New York: Free Press, 1969).
19 Fred Greenstein, The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower As Leader (New York: Basic
Books, 1982).
20 For an excellent edited volume on this topic featuring many of the scholars who
utilize this technique, see Mark Schafer and Stephen Walker (eds.), Beliefs
and Leadership in World Politics: Methods and Applications of Operational Code Analysis
(New York: Palgrave, 2006).
21 Alexander George, “The ‘Operational Code’: A Neglected Approach to the Study
of Political Leaders and Decision Making,” International Studies Quarterly, 13:
190–222, 1969, p.191. See also, for instance, Alexander George, “The Causal
Nexus Between Cognitive Beliefs and Decision Making Behavior: The ‘Operational
Code’ Belief System,” in Lawrence Falkowski (ed.), Psychological Models in Inter-
national Politics (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1979).
22 Scott Crichlow, “Idealism or Pragmatism? An Operational Code Analysis of Yitzhak
Rabin and Shimon Peres,” Political Psychology, 19: 683–706, 1998, p.684.
23 George, “The Causal Nexus Between Cognitive Beliefs and Decision Making
Behavior,” p.104. On this point see also Stephen Walker, “The Evolution
of Operational Code Analysis,” Political Psychology, 11: 403–18, 1990, pp.408–9.
24 Vertzberger, The World In Their Minds, pp.114–15. See also Stephen Walker and
Mark Schafer, “The Political Universe of Lyndon B. Johnson and His Advisors:
Diagnostic and Strategic Propensities in Their Operational Codes,” Political
Psychology, 21: 529–43, 2000.
25 Stephen Walker, “The Interface Between Beliefs and Behavior: Henry Kissinger’s
Operational Code and the Vietnam War,” Journal of Conflict Resolution, 21: 129–68,
1977, p.147.
26 Crichlow, “Idealism or Pragmatism?”
27 Ibid., p.695.
28 Ibid., p.698.
29 Ibid., p.701.
30 Mark Schafer and Stephen Walker, “Democratic Leaders and the Democratic
Peace: The Operational Codes of Tony Blair and Bill Clinton,” International Studies
Quarterly, 50: 561–83, 2006.
Notes 249
31 Ibid., p.573.
32 Ibid., p.575.
33 Stephen Dyson, “Drawing Policy Implications from the ‘Operational Code’ of
a ‘New’ Political Actor: Russian President Vladimir Putin,” Policy Sciences, 34:
329–46, 2001.
34 Ibid., p.329.
35 Ibid., p.344.
36 Critchlow “Idealism or pragmatism?,” pp.689–90.
37 Mark Shafer and Scott Critchlow, “Bill Clinton’s Operational Code: Assessing
Source Material Bias,” Political Psychology, 21: 559–71, 2000.
38 Walker, “The Evolution of Operational Code Analysis,” p.412.
39 Ibid., p.416.
9 Cognition
1 Two books in particular ushered in the new cognitive phrase in political psych-
ology during the 1980s: Susan Fiske and Shelley Taylor, Social Cognition (Reading,
MA: Addison-Wesley, 1984) and Richard Lau and David Sears, Political Cognition
(Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1986).
2 David Green and others, Cognitive Science: An Introduction (Cambridge, MA: Basil
Blackwell, 1996), p.5.
3 The guest examples are taken from Steven Pinker, How The Mind Works (New York:
W.W. Norton, 1997), p.13, but originally come from the computer scientist Terry
Winograd.
4 John Searle, “Minds, Brains and Programs,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3: 417–57,
1980. Searle’s argument has produced a huge debate in cognitive science and AI
which continues to this day, and has even featured in novels. See, for instance,
David Lodge’s brilliant Thinks . . . (New York: Viking Press, 2001).
5 Leon Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Stanford, CA: Stanford University
Press, 1957).
6 Fritz Heider, “Attitudes and Cognitive Organization,” Journal of Psychology, 21:
107–22, 1946; Heider, The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations (New York: Wiley,
1958).
7 Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition, p.10.
8 See for instance David Jones, Edward Kanhouse, Harold Kelley, Richard Nisbett,
Stuart Valins, and Bernard Weiner (eds.), Attribution: Perceiving the Causes of Behavior
(Morristown, NJ; General Learning Press, 1972) and Richard Nisbett and Lee
Ross, Human Inference: Strategies and Shortcomings of Social Judgment (Englewood
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1980).
9 Fiske and Taylor, Social Cognition, p.11.
10 Deborah Welch Larson, Origins of Containment: A Psychological Explanation (Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985), p.38.
11 Yaacov Vertzberger, The World In Their Minds: Information Processing, Cognition and
Perception in Foreign Policy Decisionmaking (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press,
1990), pp.162–63.
12 Samuel Popkin, “Decision Making in Presidential Primaries,” in Shanto Iyengar and
William McGuire (eds.), Explorations in Political Psychology (Durham, NC: Duke
University Press, 1993), p.363.
13 See for instance James Kuklinski, Robert Luskin, and John Bolland, “Where’s the
Schema? Going Beyond the ‘S’ Word in Political Psychology,” American Political
Science Review, 85: 1341–56, 1991.
14 Wendy Rahn, John Sullivan, and Thomas Rudolph, “Political Psychology and
250 Notes
Political Science,” in James Kuklinski (ed.), Thinking About Political Psychology
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p.171.
15 Deborah Welch Larson, “The Role of Belief Systems and Schemas in Foreign Policy
Decision-Making,” Political Psychology, 15: 17–33, 1994.
16 Susan Fiske and Philip Linville, “What Does the Schema Concept Buy Us?,” Person-
ality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 6: 543–57, 1980.
17 Julian Hochberg, Perception, second edition (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
1978), p.190.
18 Larson, Origins of Containment, p.132.
19 Ibid., p.197.
20 Ibid., p.197.
21 Wendy Rahn, “The Role of Partisan Stereotypes in Information Processing about
Political Candidates,” American Journal of Political Science, 37: 472–96, 2003,
p.492.
22 Popkin, “Decision Making in Presidential Primaries.”
23 Ibid., p.365.
24 See in particular Ernest May, Lessons of the Past (New York: Oxford University
Press, 1973); Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics
(Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1976), pp.217–87; Richard
Neustadt and Ernest May, Thinking in Time: The Uses of History for Decision Makers
(New York: Freedom Press, 1986).
25 Michael Eysenck and Mark Keane, Cognitive Psychology: A Student’s Handbook (Hove:
Lawrence Erlbaum, 1990), p.399.
26 Ibid., p.401.
27 Mary Gick and Keith Holyoak, “Schema Induction and Analogical Transfer,” Cogni-
tive Psychology, 15: 1–38, 1983, p.2.
28 Dedre Gentner, “Structure Mapping: A Theoretical Framework For Analogy,”
Cognitive Science, 7: 155–70, 1983.
29 Yuen Foong Khong, Analogies At War: Korea, Munich, Dien Bien Phu and the Vietnam
Decisions of 1965 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992).
30 Alex Hybel, How Leaders Reason: U.S. Intervention in the Caribbean Basin and Latin
America (Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell, 1990); Khong, Analogies At War; David
Patrick Houghton, “The Role of Analogical Reasoning in Novel Foreign-Policy
Situations,” British Journal of Political Science, 25: 523–52, 1996; Christopher Hem-
mer, Which Lessons Matter? American Foreign Policy Decision Making in the Middle East,
1979–1987 (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2000); Houghton,
U.S. Foreign Policy and the Iran Hostage Crisis (New York: Cambridge University
Press, 2001).
31 Khong, Analogies At War, pp.110–11.
32 Ibid., p.134.
33 Ibid., p.10.
34 Ibid., pp.217–18.
35 Houghton, US Foreign Policy and the Iran Hostage Crisis.
36 The Entebbe raid was famous in the 1970s and has been depicted in movies a
number of times, the most recent being The Last King of Scotland.
37 Marijke Breuning, “The Role of Analogies and Abstract Reasoning in Decision-
Making, International Studies Quarterly, 47: 229–45, 2003.
38 Donald Sylvan, Thomas Ostrom, and Katherine Gannon, “Case-Based, Model-
Based, and Explanation-Based Styles of Reasoning in Foreign Policy,” International
Studies Quarterly, 38: 61–90, 1994, p.88.
39 Gick and Holyoak, “Schema Induction and Analogical Transfer,” p.32.
Notes 251
10 Affect and Emotion
1 This phrase was introduced by Robert Abelson in the early 1960s, and has become
common in the literature on affect. See Robert Abelson, “Computer Simulation of
‘Hot Cognitions,’ ” in Silvian Tomkins and Samuel Messick (eds.), Computer Simula-
tion of Personality: Frontier of Psychological Theory (New York: Wiley, 1963).
2 Robert Zajonc, “Feeling and Thinking: Preferences Need No Inferences,” American
Psychologist, 35: 151–75, 1980, p.153.
3 Ibid., p.225.
4 David Redlawsk, “Feeling Politics: New Research into Emotion and Politics,” in
Redlawsk (ed.), Feeling Politics: Emotion in Political Information Processing (Palgrave
Macmillian, 2006), p.2.
5 Apart from Redlawsk’s edited volume, see for instance Russell Neuman, George
Marcus, Michael MacKuen, and Ann Crigler (eds.), The Affect Effect: Dynamics of
Emotion in Political Thinking and Behavior (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
2007); Drew Westen, The Political Brain: The Role of Emotion in Deciding the Fate of the
Nation (New York: Public Affairs, 2007); Ted Brader, Campaigning For Hearts and
Minds: How Emotional Appeals in Political Ads Work (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 2006); George Marcus, The Sentimental Citizen: Emotion in Democratic Politics
(University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002) and George
Marcus, Russell Neuman, and Michael MacKuen, Affective Intelligence and Political
Judgment (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000).
6 Redlawsk, “Feeling Politics,” p.2.
7 Victor Ottati and Robert Wyer, “Affect and Political Judgment,” in Shanto Iyengar
and William McGuire, Explorations in Political Psychology (Durham, NC: Duke
University Press, 1993).
8 With advances in neuroscience, it has become clear that depression is often the
result of a deficiency of the chemical serotonin in the brain, something which is very
often treated with a “serotonin reuptake inhibitor” like Prozac and its many pharma-
cological cousins. This treatment was of course unavailable in Churchill’s day.
9 See for instance George Marcus, The Sentimental Citizen.
10 Steven Pinker, How The Mind Works (New York: W.W. Norton, 1997), p.419.
11 Ibid., p.373. Spock’s character is not necessarily contradictory, however, since as
already noted one of his parents was human. While writing this book I was amazed
to come across a whole book in my university library devoted solely to the psych-
ology of Star Trek. See Robert Sekuler and Randolph Blake, Star Trek on the Brain:
Alien Minds, Human Minds (New York: W.W. Freeman, 1998). The authors use
examples from their book to teach neuroscience.
12 Pinker, How the Mind Works, p.374.
13 Ibid., p.374.
14 See Antonio Damasio, Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain (New
York: Putnam, 1994).
15 Jonathan Mercer, “Rationality and Psychology in International Politics,” Inter-
national Organization, 59: 77–106, 2005, p.93.
16 Ibid., p.94.
17 Yaacov Vertzberger, The World In Their Minds: Information Processing, Cognition and
Perception in Foreign Policy Decisionmaking (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press,
1990), p.176.
18 Marcus, Neuman, and MacKuen, Affective Intelligence and Political Judgment, p.9.
19 Redlawsk, Feeling Politics, p.4.
20 Milton Lodge and Charles Taber, “Three Steps Toward a Theory of Motivated
Political Reasoning,” in Arthur Lupia, Matthew McCubbins, and Samuel Popkin
(eds.), Elements of Reason (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Lodge
252 Notes
and Taber, “The Automaticity of Affect for Political Leaders: Groups, and Issues:
An Experimental Test of the Hot Cognition Hypothesis,” Political Psychology, 26:
455–82, 2005; Taber and Lodge, “Motivated Skepticism in the Evaluation of Political
Beliefs,” American Journal of Political Science, 50: 755–69, 2006.
21 Lodge and Taber, “Three Steps Toward a Theory of Motivated Political Reasoning,”
p.184.
22 Redlawsk, Feeling Politics, p.4.
23 George Marcus, “Emotions in Politics,” Annual Review of Political Science, 3: 221–50,
2000, p.231.
24 Yuen Foong Khong, Analogies At War: Korea, Munich, Dien Bien Phu and the Vietnam
Decisions of 1965 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992), pp.225–26.
25 Ibid., p.224.
26 Doris Kearns Goodwin, Lyndon Johnson and the American Dream (New York:
St. Martin’s Press, 1976), p.270.
27 Blema Steinberg, Shame and Humiliation: Presidential Decision Making on Vietnam
(Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1996), p.7.
28 Susan Fiske and Mark Pavelchak, “Category-Based vs. Piecemeal-Based Affective
Responses: Developments in Schema-Triggered Affect,” in Richard Sorrentino and
E. Tory Higgins (eds.), Handbook of Motivation and Cognition (New York: Guildford
Press, 1986).
29 Redlawsk, “Feeling Politics,” pp.5–6.
30 Vertzberger, The World In Their Minds, p.177.
31 Ibid., p.177.
11 Neuroscience
1 See Jonas Kaplan, Joshua Freedman, and Marco Iacoboni, “Us Versus Them:
Political Attitudes and Party Affiliation Influence Neural Response to Faces of
Presidential Candidates,” Neuropsychologica, 45: 55–64, 2007 and Drew Westen,
Pavel Blagov, Keith Harenski, Clint Kilts, and Stephan Hamann, “The Neural Basis
of Motivated Reasoning: An fMRI Study of Emotional Constraints on Political
Judgment During the US Presidential Election of 2004,” Journal of Cognitive Neuro-
science, 18: 1947–58, 2006. The latter study is also summarized in Drew Westen,
The Political Brain: The Role of Emotion in Deciding the Fate of the Nation (New York:
Public Affairs, 2007), especially x–xv.
2 See Jonas Kaplan, Joshua Freedman, and Marco Iacoboni, “Us Versus Them” and John
Tierney, “The 2004 Campaign: Using MRIs to See Politics On The Brain,” New York
Times, April 20, 2004. The author is indebted to Dr. Marco Iacoboni, Director of
the Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Laboratory at Ahmanson Lovelace Brain
Mapping Center, UCLA and Dr. Jeffrey Bedwell of the Clinical Cognitive Neuro-
science Laboratory at the University of Central Florida for their assistance in
answering the author’s questions about the utility of different scanning techniques
and their role in measuring emotion. Thanks also to David Pearl of Washington
State University for stimulating my interest in the general topic of neuroscience
and EEG in particular.
3 Marco Iacoboni, Joshua Freedman, and Jonas Kaplan, Op-Ed, “This is Your Brain
on Politics,” New York Times, November 11, 2007.
4 Ibid.
5 See Westen, et al. “The Neural Basis of Motivated Reasoning” and Westen, The
Political Brain.
6 The exceptions are George Marcus’s excellent The Sentimental Citizen: Emotion in
Democratic Politics (University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press,
2002), especially Chapters 3 and 4, and Westen’s The Political Brain. Also important
Notes 253
in this growing literature is the work of Darren Schreiber on political communica-
tion. See especially Schreiber, “Political Cognition as Social Cognition: Are We All
Political Sophistiates?,” in Ann Crigler et al. (eds), The Affect Effect: Dynamics of
Emotion in Political Thinking and Behavior (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
2007); “The Evolution of the Political Brain: An Agent-Based Model,” paper
presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association,
Philadelphia, 2006, and “Monkey See, Monkey Do: Mirror Neurons, Functional
Brain Imaging, and Looking at Political Faces,” paper presented at the annual
meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, DC, 2005, as
well as Joel Weinberger and Drew Westen’s work on subliminal political advertis-
ing. See Weinberger and Westen, “RATS, We Should Have Used Clinton: Sub-
liminal Priming in Political Campaigns,” paper presented at the International
Society of Political Psychology Conference, Portland, OR, 2007. For discussions of
the utility of neuroscience in understanding politics, see Rose McDermott, “The
Feeling of Rationality: The Meaning of Neuroscientific Advances for Political
Science,” Perspectives on Politics, 2: 691–706, 2004, the special edition of Political
Psychology, Volume 24, 2003 on neuroscience; Marcus, “The Psychology of Emotion
and Politics,” in David Sears, Leonie Huddy, and Robert Jervis (eds.), Oxford
Handbook of Political Psychology (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003) and
Dustin Tingley, “Neurological Imaging as Evidence in Political Science: A Review,
Critique, and Guiding Assessment,” Social Science Information, 45: 5–33, 2006.
7 John Ratey, A User’s Guide To The Brain: Perception, Attention and the Four Theaters of
the Brain (New York: Vintage Books, 2001).
8 See Westen, The Political Brain, p.50.
9 Ibid., p.57.
10 Ibid., p.53.
11 Westen, The Political Brain, p.60.
12 Ibid., pp.60–61.
13 See for instance Oliver Sacks, The Man Who Mistook His Wife For A Hat And Other
Clinical Tales (New York: Touchstone, 1998).
14 Antonio Damasio, Descartes’ Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain (New York:
Penguin, 1994).
15 Ibid., p.32.
16 Dr. Marco Iacoboni, communication with the author, December 7, 2007.
17 Ralph Adolphs, “Cognitive Neuroscience of Human Social Behavior,” Nature
Reviews: Neuroscience, 4: 165–78, 2003; Tingley, “Neurological Imaging as Evidence
in Political Science,” p.19.
18 Quoted in Tierney, “The 2004 Campaign.”
19 See for instance the work of Jonathan Schooler.
20 Iacoboni, communication with the author,
21 Bedwell, conversation with the author, December 13, 2007.
22 Iacoboni, communication with the author.
23 Bedwell, conversation with the author.
24 Quoted in Tierney, “The 2004 Campaign.”
25 Daniel Amen, “Getting Inside Their Heads . . . Really Inside,” Los Angeles Times,
December 5, 2007. Bedwell notes that the sophistication of brain imaging has not
yet reached a level where confident predictions can be made about later Alzheimer’s
in any case. Bedwell, conversation with the author.
26 Kaplan, Freedman, and Iacoboni, “Us Versus Them,” pp.60–61.
27 On this point, see also Darren Schreiber, “Race and Social Norms: An fMRI Study,”
paper presented at the International Society of Political Psychology Conference,
Portland, OR, 2007.
28 Tingley, “Neurological Imaging as Evidence in Political Science,” p.6.
254 Notes
12 The Psychology of Voting Behavior
1 The literature on this topic is now so substantial that it is impossible to do full
justice to it here, but we shall concentrate on some of the main highlights.
2 See for instance Paul Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson, and Hazel Gaudet, The People’s
Choice (New York: Columbia University Press, 1948).
3 Angus Campbell, Philip Converse, Warren Miller, and Donald Stokes, The American
Voter (New York: Wiley, 1960). This approach is sometimes known simply as the
“Michigan School.”
4 David Butler and Donald Stokes, Political Change in Britain: Forces Shaping Electoral
Choice (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1969).
5 See the website of a 2006 Duke University conference on the psychology of
voting at http://www.ssri.duke.edu/anes/voting.html.
6 Leon Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Stanford, CA: Stanford University
Press, 1957).
7 Philip Converse, “The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics,” in David Apter
(ed.), Ideology and Discontent (New York: Free Press, 1964).
8 Arthur Miller, Martin Wattenberg, and Oksana Malanchuk, “Schematic Assess-
ments of Presidential Candidates,” American Political Science Review, 80: 521–40,
1986.
9 Norman Nie, Sidney Verba, and John Petrocik, The Changing American Voter
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976). See also Morris Fiorina, Retro-
spective Voting in American National Elections (London: Yale University Press, 1981).
10 V.O. Key, The Responsible Electorate (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press, 1966).
11 See for instance Eric Smith, The Unchanging American Voter (Berkeley, CA: Univer-
sity of California Press, 1989); Warren Miller and Merrill Shanks, The New American
Voter (London: Harvard University Press, 1996).
12 Milton Lodge, Patrick Stroh, and John Wahlke, “Black Box Models of Candidate
Evaluation,” Political Behavior, 12: 5–18, 1990.
13 See James Druckman and Joanne Miller, “The Political Psychology of Electoral
Campaigns,” Political Psychology, 25: 501–6, 2004 and the accompanying Symposium
in that issue.
14 Samuel Popkin, “Decision Making in Presidential Primaries,” in Shanto Iyengar and
William McGuire (eds.), Explorations in Political Psychology (Durham, NC: Duke
University Press, 1993).
15 Kathleen McGraw, “Contributions of the Cognitive Approach to Political Psych-
ology,” Political Psychology, 21: 805–27, 2000.
16 Donald Kinder, Mark Peters, Robert Abelson, and Susan Fiske, “Presidential
Prototypes,” Political Behavior, 2: 315–37, 1980, p.316.
17 Ibid., p.333.
18 Arthur Miller, Martin Wattenberg, and Oksana Malanchuk, “Schematic Assessments
of Presidential Candidates,” pp.523–24.
19 Ibid., p.524.
20 Ibid., p.535.
21 Milton Lodge, Patrick Stroh, and John Wahlke, “Black-Box Models of Candidate
Evaluation.”
22 The first part of the film is based on a short story by the late, great science fiction
author Philip K. Dick called “We Can Remember It For You Wholesale.”
23 Milton Lodge, Kathleen McGraw, and Patrick Stroh, “An Impression-Driven
Model of Candidate Evaluation,” American Political Science Review, 83: 399–419,
1989. See also Reid Hastie and Bernadette Park, “The Relationship between Mem-
ory and Judgment Depends on Whether the Task Is Memory-Based or On-Line,”
Psychological Review, 93: 258–68, 1986 and Howard Lavine, “On-Line Versus
Notes 255
Memory-Based Process Models of Political Evaluation,” in Kristen Monroe (ed.),
Political Psychology (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2002).
24 Druckman and Miller, “The Political Psychology of Electoral Campaigns,” p.502.
25 See for instance Stanley Feldman, “Answering Survey Questions: The Measure-
ment and Meaning of Public Opinion,” in Milton Lodge and Kathleen McGraw,
Political Judgment: Structure and Process (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan
Press, 1995) and John Zaller, The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1992).
26 McGraw, “Contributions of the Cognitive Approach to Political Psychology,” p.813.
27 See the conference website at http://www.ssri.duke.edu/anes/index.html.
13 The Psychology of Nationalism, Ethnic Conflict,
and Genocide
1 One of the earliest studies of this kind was Leonard Doob’s Patriotism and National-
ism: Their Psychological Foundations (New Haven and London: Yale University Press,
1964), which drew heavily on the language of S–R behaviorism. More recently, we
have seen the appearance of Dusan Kecmanovic, The Mass Psychology of Ethnonation-
alism (New York and London: Plenum Press, 1996) and Joshua Searle-White, The
Psychology of Nationalism (New York and Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002).
2 See Walker Connor, Ethnonationalism: The Quest For Understanding (Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 1994), p.4.
3 Searle-White, The Psychology of Nationalism, p.3.
4 Quoted in Connor, Ethnonationalism, p.4.
5 Anthony Smith (ed.), Theories of Nationalism, second edition (New York: Holmes
and Meier, 1983).
6 See James Sidanius, “The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics of
Oppression: A Social Dominance Perspective,” in Shanto Iyengar and William
McGuire, Explorations in Political Psychology (Durham, NC: Duke University Press,
1993).
7 The (now rare) exception to this in British soccer are teams which have historic-
ally been divided along religious lines. This is still the case somewhat with Rangers
FC and Celtic FC, two teams from the Scottish city of Glasgow which traditionally
represent Protestants and Catholics respectively, though the strength of this div-
ision has weakened considerably. The city of Liverpool in England was also once
divided along similar religious lines between Liverpool FC and Everton FC, though
this is no longer the case today. It should also be noted that until the last ten years,
British soccer was far less racially integrated than it is today. British soccer has now
been “globalized” to the point where each of the teams (in the top divisions, at
least) is exceptionally mixed racially and ethnically, with each including a large
number of non-U.K. players.
8 See the excellent summary of this in James Waller, Becoming Evil: How Ordinary
People Commit Genocide and Mass Killing (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002),
pp.238–44, from which I have drawn freely here.
9 See Henri Tajfel and John Turner, “The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup
Behavior,” in John Jost and Jim Sidanius (eds.), Political Psychology: Key Readings
(New York and Hove: Psychology Press, 2004); this can also be found in
S. Worchel and L.W. Austin (eds.), Psychology of Intergroup Relations (Chicago:
Nelson-Hall, 1986); Tajfel, “Experiments in Intergroup Discrimination,” Scientific
American, 223: 96–102, 1970; Tajfel, Human Groups and Social Categories (Cambridge,
England: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Tajfel, Social Identity and Intergroup
Relations (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1982).
256 Notes
10 Waller, Becoming Evil, p.241.
11 Tajfel and Turner, “The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior,” p.282.
12 Searle-White, The Psychology of Nationalism.
13 Ibid., pp.87–100.
14 Alan Finlayson, “Psychology, Psychoanalysis and Theories of Nationalism,” Nations
and Nationalism, 4: 145–62, 1998. The “uniqueness” critique can also be leveled at
other theories as well, such as realistic group conflict theory and social dominance
theory.
15 Leonie Huddy, “From Social to Political Identity: A Critical Examination of Social
Identity Theory,” Political Psychology, 22: 127–56, 2001.
16 Ibid., p.137.
17 See for instance James Sidanius and Felicia Pratto, “The Inevitability of Oppression
and the Dynamics of Social Dominance,” in Paul Sniderman and Philip Tetlock
(eds.), Prejudice and Politics in American Society (Stanford, CA: Stanford University
Press, 1991); Sidanius, “The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics
of Oppression: A Social Dominance Perspective;” James Sidanius, Felicia Pratto,
Colette van Laar, and Shana Levi, “Social Dominance Theory: Its Agenda and
Method,” Political Psychology, 25: 845–80, 2004.
18 Sidanius, “The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics of Oppression,”
p.217.
19 Ibid., p.214.
20 Kristen Monroe, James Hankin, and Renee Van Vechten, “The Psychological Foun-
dations of Identity Politics,” Annual Review of Political Science, 3: 419–47, 2000,
p.431.
21 Sidanius, “The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics of Oppression,”
p.202.
22 Ibid., p.204.
23 Sidanius et al., “Social Dominance Theory,” p.846.
24 Sidanius, “The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics of Oppression,”
p.210.
25 Sigmund Freud, Civilization and Its Discontents (New York: W.W. Norton, 1961),
p.61.
26 Vamik Volkan, The Need To Have Enemies and Allies: From Clinical Practice to Inter-
national Relationships (Northvale, NJ: J. Aronson, 1988). See also Volkan, Bloodlines:
From Ethnic Pride To Ethnic Terrorism (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1997)
and Finlayson, “Psychology, Psychoanalysis and Theories of Nationalism.”
27 Searle-White, The Psychology of Nationalism, p.41.
28 Dusan Kecmanovic, “Review of Joshua Searle-White, The Psychology of Nationalism,”
Nations and Nationalism, 9: 459–61, 2003.
29 See for instance Konrad Lorenz, On Aggression (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1966).
30 Richard Dawkins, The Selfish Gene, 30th anniversary edition (New York: Oxford
University Press, 2006), p.2.
31 Mary Clark, In Search of Human Nature (New York: Routledge, 2002), p.55.
32 Ibid.
33 J. Philippe Ruston, “Ethnic Nationalism, Evolutionary Psychology and Genetic
Similarity Theory,” Nations and Nationalism, 11: 489–507, 2005.
34 Ibid., p.495.
35 Ibid., p.501.
36 Ibid., p.503.
37 Monroe, James Hankin, and Renee Van Vechten, p.436.
38 Waller, Becoming Evil, p.243.
39 Kristen Monroe, “Review Essay: The Psychology of Genocide,” Ethics & International
Affairs, 9: 215–39, 1995, p.216.
Notes 257