Gubbins D., Herrero-Bervera E. Encyclopedia of Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism

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ENCYCLOPEDIA

of GEOMAGNETISM

AND PALEOMAGNETISM

Encyclopedia of

Earth Sciences Series

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF GEOMAGNETISM AND PALEOMAGNETISM

Volume Editors

David Gubbins is Research Professor of Earth Sciences in the School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, UK. He did his PhD on

geomagnetic dynamos in Cambridge, supervised by Sir Edward Bullard and has worked in the USA, and in Cambridge before moving to Leeds

in 1989. His work has included dynamo theory and its connection with the Earth's thermal history, modeling the Earth's magnetic field from

historical measurements, and recently the interpretation of paleomagnetic data. He is a fellow of the Royal Society and has been awarded the gold

medal of the Royal Astronomical Society and the John Adam Fleming Medal of the American Geophysical Union for original research and

leadership in geomagnetism.

Emilio Herrero-Bervera is Research Professor of Geophysics at the School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST) within the

Hawaii Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP) of the University of Hawaii at Manoa, where he is the head of the Paleomagnetics and

Petrofabrics Laboratory. During his career he has published over 90 papers in professional journals including Nature, JGR, EPSL, JVGR. He has

worked in such diverse fields as volcanology, sedimentology, plate tectonics, and has done field work on five continents.

Aim of the Series

The Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the earth sciences. Each

volume comprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copious illustrations and

reference lists.

These books represent one of the world's leading resources for the Earth sciences community. Previous volumes are being updated and new works

published so that the volumes will continue to be essential reading for all professional Earth scientists, geologists, geophysicists, climatologists,

and oceanographers as well as for teachers and students.

See the back of this volume for a current list of titles in the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. Go to http://www.springerlink.com/reference-

works/ to visit the “Earth Sciences Series” on-line.

About the Editors

Professor Rhodes W. Fairbridge

{

has edited 24 encyclopedias in the Earth Sciences Series. During his career he has worked as a petroleum

geologist in the Middle East, been a World War II intelligence officer in the SW Pacific, and led expeditions to the Sahara, Arctic Canada, Arctic

Scandinavia, Brazil, and New Guinea. He was Emeritus Professor of Geology at Columbia University and was affiliated with the Goddard

Institute for Space Studies.

Professor Michael Rampino has published more than 100 papers in professional journals including Science, Nature, and Scientific American.

He has worked in such diverse fields as volcanology, planetary science, sedimentology, and climate studies, and has done field work on six

continents. He is currently Associate Professor of Earth and Environmental Sciences at New York University and a consultant at NASA's

Goddard Institute for Space Studies.

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES

ENCYCLOPEDIA

of GEOMAGNETISM

AND PALEOMAGNETISM

edited by

DAVID GUBBINS

University of Leeds

and

EMILIO HERRERO-

BERVERA

University of Hawaii at Manoa

A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN-13: 978-1-4020-3992-8

This publication is available also as

Electronic publication under ISBN 978-1-4020-4423-6 and

Print and electronic bundle under ISBN 978-1-4020-4866-1

Published by Springer

PO Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands

Printed on acid‐free paper

Cover photo: Part of “A Digital Age Map of the Ocean Floor”, by Mueller, R.D., Roest, W.R., Royer, J.‐Y., Gahagan, L.M., and Sclater, J.G.,

SIO Reference Series 93-30, Scripps Institution of Oceanography (map downloaded courtesy of NGDC).

Every effort has been made to contact the copyright holders of the figures and tables which have been reproduced from other sources. Anyone

who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that due acknowledgment may be made in subsequent editions.

No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,

photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied

specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.

Dedication

Jack A. Jacobs (1916–2003)

This encyclopedia is dedicated to the memory of Jack Jacobs. He made

contributions across the whole spectrum of geomagnetism and

paleomagnetism throughout a long and productive career. His books

Micropulsations, Geonomy, The Earth’s Core and Geomagnetism,

Reversals of the Earth’s Magnetic Field, and the four volumes of

Geomagnetism intended to replace Chapman & Bartels’ work of

the same name, cover the field. For this encyclopedia he completed

articles for both editors, on disc dynamo and geomagnetic excursions,

and was working on superchrons and changes in reversal frequency at

the end.

Contents

List of Contributors xv

Preface xxv

Aeromagnetic Surveying 1

Mark Pilkington

Agricola, Georgius (1494–1555) 3

Allan Chapman

Alfvén Waves 3

Christopher Finlay

Alfvén, Hannes Olof Gösta (1908–1995) 6

Carl-Gunne Fälthammar and David Gubbins

Alfvén's Theorem and the Frozen Flux Approximation 7

Paul H. Roberts

Anelastic and Boussinesq Approximations 11

Stanislav I. Braginsky and Paul H. Roberts

Anisotropy, Electrical 20

Karsten Bahr

Antidynamo and Bounding Theorems 21

Friedrich Busse and Michael Proctor

Archeology, Magnetic Methods 23

Armin Schmidt

Archeomagnetism 31

Donald D. Tarling

Auroral Oval 33

Stephen Milan

Baked Contact Test 35

Kenneth L. Buchan

Bangui Anomaly 39

Patrick T. Taylor

Barlow, Peter (1776–1862) 40

Emmanuel Dormy

Bartels, Julius (1899–1964) 42

Karl-Heinz Glaßmeier and Manfred Siebert

Bauer, Louis Agricola (1865–1932) 42

Gregory A. Good

Bemmelen, Willem van (1868–1941) 44

Art R.T. Jonkers

Benton, E. R. 44

David Loper

Bingham Statistics 45

Jeffrey J. Love

Biomagnetism 48

Michael D. Fuller and Jon Dobson

Blackett, Patrick Maynard Stuart, Baron

of Chelsea (1887–1974) 53

Michael D. Fuller

Bullard, Edward Crisp (1907–1980) 54

David Gubbins

Carnegie Institution of Washington, Department of Terrestrial

Magnetism 56

Gregory A. Good

Carnegie, Research Vessel 58

Gregory A. Good

Champ 59

Stefan Maus

Chapman, Sydney (1888–1970) 61

Stuart R.C. Malin

Coast Effect of Induced Currents 61

Ted Lilley

Compass 66

Art R.T. Jonkers

Conductivity Geothermometer 69

Ted Lilley

Conductivity, Ocean Floor Measurements 71

Steven Constable

Convection, Chemical 73

David Loper

Convection, Nonmagnetic Rotating 74

Andrew Soward

Core Composition 77

William F. McDonough

Core Convection 80

Keke Zhang

Core Density 82

Guy Masters

Core Motions 84

Kathryn A. Whaler

Core Origin 89

Francis Nimmo

Core Properties, Physical 91

Frank D. Stacey

Core Properties, Theoretical Determination 94

David Price

Core Temperature 98

David Price

Core Turbulence 101

Bruce Buffett and Hiroaki Matsui

Core Viscosity 104

Lidunka Vočadlo

Core, Adiabatic Gradient 106

Orson L. Anderson

Core, Boundary Layers 111

Emmanuel Dormy, Paul H. Roberts, and Andrew Soward

Core, Electrical Conductivity 116

Frank D. Stacey

Core, Magnetic Instabilities 117

David R. Fearn

Core, Thermal Conduction 120

Frank D. Stacey

Core-Based Inversions for the Main Geomagnetic Field 122

David Gubbins

Core-Mantle Boundary Topography, Implications for Dynamics 124

Andrew Soward

Core-Mantle Boundary Topography, Seismology 125

Andrea Morelli

Core-Mantle Boundary, Heat Flow Across 127

Stéphane Labrosse

Core-Mantle Coupling, Electromagnetic 130

Richard Holme

Core-Mantle Coupling, Thermal 132

Jeremy Bloxham

Core-Mantle Coupling, Topographic 135

Dominique Jault

Cowling, Thomas George (1906–1990) 137

Leon Mestel

Cowling's Theorem 138

Friedrich Busse

Cox, Allan V. (1926–1987) 139

Kenneth P. Kodama

Crustal Magnetic Field 140

Dhananjay Ravat

and F-Layers 145

David Gubbins

as a Boundary Layer 145

David Loper

, Anisotropy 146

Michael Kendall

, Composition 149

Quentin Williams

, Seismic Properties 151

Thorne Lay

Della Porta, Giambattista (1535–1615) 156

Allan Chapman

Demagnetization 156

Jaime Urrutia-Fucugauchi

Depth to Curie Temperature 157

Mita Rajaram

Dipole Moment Variation 159

Catherine Constable

Dynamo Waves 161

Graeme R. Sarson

Dynamo, Backus 163

Ashley P. Willis

Dynamo, Braginsky 164

Graeme R. Sarson

Dynamo, Bullard-Gellman 166

Graeme R. Sarson

Dynamo, Disk 167

Jack A. Jacobs

Dynamo, Gailitis 169

Agris Gailitis

Dynamo, Herzenberg 170

Paul H. Roberts

Dynamo, Lowes-Wilkinson 173

Frank Lowes

Dynamo, Model-Z 174

Rainer Hollerbach

Dynamo, Ponomarenko 175

Paul H. Roberts

Dynamo, Solar 178

Eugene N. Parker

Dynamos, Experimental 183

Andreas Tilgner

Dynamos, Fast 186

Michael Proctor

Dynamos, Kinematic 188

Philip W. Livermore

Dynamos, Mean-Field 192

Karl-Heinz Raedler

Dynamos, Periodic 200

David Gubbins

Dynamos, Planetary and Satellite 203

David J. Stevenson

Earth Structure, Major Divisions 208

Brian Kennett

viii CONTENTS

Elsasser, Walter M. (1904–1991) 214

Eugene N. Parker

EM Modeling, Forward 215

Dmitry B. Avdeev

EM Modeling, Inverse 219

Gary D. Egbert

EM, Industrial Uses 223

Graham Heinson

EM, Lake-Bottom Measurements 227

Adam Schultz

EM, Land Uses 228

Louise Pellerin

EM, Marine Controlled Source 231

Nigel Edwards

EM, Regional Studies 242

Oliver Ritter

EM, Tectonic Interpretations 245

Malcolm Ingham

Environmental Magnetism 248

Barbara A. Maher

Environmental Magnetism, Paleomagnetic Applications 256

Andrew P. Roberts

Equilibration of Magnetic Field, Weak- and Strong-Field

Dynamos 262

Keke Zhang

Euler Deconvolution 263

Alan B. Reid

First-Order Reversal Curve (FORC) Diagrams 266

Adrian R. Muxworthy and Andrew P. Roberts

Fisher Statistics 272

Jeffrey J. Love

Fleming, John Adam (1877–1956) 273

Shaun J. Hardy

Fluid Dynamics Experiments 274

Jonathan M. Aurnou

Galvanic Distortion 277

Karsten Bahr

Gauss’ Determination of Absolute Intensity 278

Stuart R.C. Malin

Gauss, Carl Friedrich (1777–1855) 279

Karl-Heinz Glaßmeier

Gellibrand, Henry (1597–1636) 280

Stuart R.C. Malin

Geocentric Axial Dipole Hypothesis 281

Michael W. McElhinny

Geodynamo 287

Chris Jones

Geodynamo, Dimensional Analysis and Timescales 297

David Gubbins

Geodynamo, Energy Sources 300

Stéphane Labrosse

Geodynamo: Numerical Simulations 302

Gary A. Glatzmaier

Geodynamo, Symmetry Properties 306

David Gubbins

Geomagnetic Deep Sounding 307

Roger Banks

Geomagnetic Dipole Field 310

Frank Lowes

Geomagnetic Excursion 311

Jack A. Jacobs

Geomagnetic Field, Asymmetries 313

Phillip L. McFadden and Ronald T. Merrill

Geomagnetic Hazards 316

Alan W.P. Thomson

Geomagnetic Jerks 319

Susan Macmillan

Geomagnetic Polarity Reversals 320

Alain Mazaud

Geomagnetic Polarity Reversals, Observations 324

Bradford M. Clement

Geomagnetic Polarity Timescales 328

William Lowrie

Geomagnetic Pulsations 333

Karl-Heinz Glaßmeier

Geomagnetic Reversal Sequence, Statistical Structure 335

Phillip L. McFadden

Geomagnetic Reversals, Archives 339

Jean-Pierre Valet and Emilio Herrero-Bervera

Geomagnetic Secular Variation 346

Ingo Wardinski

Geomagnetic Spectrum, Spatial 350

Frank Lowes

Geomagnetic Spectrum, Temporal 353

Catherine Constable

Geomagnetism, History of 355

Art R.T. Jonkers

Gilbert, William (1544–1603) 360

Allan Chapman

Gravitational Torque 362

Jean-Louis Le Mouel

Gravity-Inertio Waves and Inertial Oscillations 364

Keith Aldridge

Grüneisen's Parameter for Iron and Earth's Core 366

Orson L. Anderson

Halley, Edmond (1656–1742) 375

Sir Alan Cook

Hansteen, Christopher (1784– 1873) 376

Johannes M. Hansteen

Harmonics, Spherical 377

Denis Winch

Harmonics, Spherical Cap 395

G.V. Haines

Hartmann, Georg (1489–1564) 397

Allan Chapman

CONTENTS ix

Helioseismology 398

Michael J. Thompson

Higgins-Kennedy Paradox 401

Friedrich Busse

Humboldt, Alexander Von (1759–1859) 402

Friedrich Busse

Humboldt, Alexander Von and Magnetic Storms 404

G.S. Lakhina, B.T. Tsurutani, W.D. Gonzalez, and S. Alex

IAGA, International Association of Geomagnetism

and Aeronomy 407

David Kerridge

Ideal Solution Theory 408

Dario Alfè

IGRF, International Geomagnetic Reference Field 411

Susan Macmillan

Induction Arrows 412

Oliver Ritter

Induction from Satellite Data 413

Steven Constable

Inhomogeneous Boundary Conditions and the Dynamo 416

Keke Zhang

Inner Core Anisotropy 418

Xiaodong Song

Inner Core Composition 420

Lidunka Vočadlo

Inner Core Oscillation 422

Keith Aldridge

Inner Core Rotation 423

Paul G. Richards and Anyi Li

Inner Core Rotational Dynamics 425

Michael G. Rochester

Inner Core Seismic Velocities 427

Annie Souriau

Inner Core Tangent Cylinder 430

Rainer Hollerbach and David Gubbins

Inner Core, PKJKP 433

Hanneke Paulssen

Instrumentation, History of 434

Gregory A. Good

Interiors of Planets and Satellites 439

Gerald Schubert

Internal External Field Separation 448

Denis Winch

Ionosphere 452

Arthur D. Richmond

Iron Sulfides 454

Leonardo Sagnotti

Jesuits, Role in Geomagnetism 460

Agustín Udías

Kircher, Athanasius (1602–1680) 463

Oriol Cardus

Langel, Robert A. (1937–2000) 465

Michael E. Purucker

Laplace's Equation, Uniqueness of Solutions 466

David Gubbins

Larmor, Joseph (1857–1942) 468

David Gubbins

Lehmann, Inge (1888–1993) 468

David Gubbins

Length of Day Variations, Decadal 469

Richard Holme

Length of Day Variations, Long-Term 471

L.V. Morrison and F.R. Stephenson

Lloyd, Humphrey (1808–1881) 472

Deanis Weaire and J.M.D. Coey

Magnetic Anisotropy, Sedimentary Rocks and Strain Alteration 475

Peter D. Weiler

Magnetic Anomalies for Geology and Resources 477

Colin Reeves and Juha V. Korhonen

Magnetic Anomalies, Long Wavelength 481

Michael E. Purucker

Magnetic Anomalies, Marine 483

James R. Heirtzler

Magnetic Anomalies, Modeling 485

Jafar Arkani-Hamed

Magnetic Domains 490

Susan L. Halgedahl

Magnetic Field of Mars 502

Jafar Arkani-Hamed

Magnetic Field of Sun 505

Steven M. Tobias

Magnetic Indices 509

Jeffrey J. Love and K.J. Remick

Magnetic Mineralogy, Changes due to Heating 512

Bernard Henry

Magnetic Properties, Low-Temperature 515

Andrei Kosterov

Magnetic Proxy Parameters 525

Mark J. Dekkers

Magnetic Remanence, Anisotropy 535

Ann M. Hirt

Magnetic Shielding 540

Gary R. Scott

Magnetic Surveys, Marine 542

Maurice A. Tivey

Magnetic Susceptibility, Anisotropy 546

František Hrouda

Magnetic Susceptibility, Anisotropy, Effects of Heating 560

Jaime Urrutia-Fucugauchi

Magnetic Susceptibility, Anisotropy, Rock Fabric 564

Edgardo Cañón-Tapia

Magnetic Susceptibility (MS), Low-Field 566

Brooks B. Ellwood

Magnetization, Anhysteretic Remanent 572

Bruce M. Moskowitz

x CONTENTS