Gates Charles. Ancient Cities: The Archaeology of Urban Life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome

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Preface

[T]he city is one of the most remarkable, one of the most enduring of human artifacts and

human institutions. Its fascination is inevitable: its study is both duty and homage.

(Kostof 1991: 40)

This book introduces the cities and civilizations of the Ancient Near East, Egypt, Greece, and

Rome through the eyes of archaeology. Urban centers are the focus throughout: architecture

and other material remains, historical and socio-economic contexts, and the experiences of the

people who lived in them. The book traces cities from their origins in the Near East of the

ninth–sixth millennia BC to the end of pagan antiquity in the early fourth century AD. The region

treated is vast, ranging from the Indus Valley in modern Pakistan in the east to England in the

west – the territory controlled by the Achaemenid Persians and conquered by Alexander the

Great combined with that held by the Romans at the height of their empire. The parade of cul-

tures is colorful and complex: Sumerians and Babylonians, Assyrians and Egyptians, Minoans

and Etruscans, Greeks and Romans. Different as they can be, one from the other, these cultures

nevertheless are linked together in a long chain of interconnections. The Romans looked to

Greece for artistic and intellectual inspiration, for example, just as the Greeks would have inhab-

ited a very different world without the stimulation and challenge of Near Eastern and Egyptian

accomplishments. These disparate cultures form an Old World unity, and merit study together.

Urbanism was not exclusive to south-west Asia and the Mediterranean basin, of course; but the

independent urban traditions of East Asia, the Americas, and Saharan and sub-Saharan Africa lie

outside the scope of this book.

The book has two sources of inspiration. The immediate stimulus for undertaking this proj-

ect was the need for a textbook to accompany “Ancient Cities,” a popular introduction to the

ancient cultures of the Mediterranean basin and the Near East introduced by Emeline Hill Rich-

ardson and developed by fellow archaeologists in the Department of Classics at the University

of North Carolina-Chapel Hill. The course never claimed impartiality: with its home in Clas-

sics, the syllabus has understandably given more weight to Greek and Roman cities than to the

Ancient Near Eastern and Egyptian ones. Further, because of my own experiences and interests,

I emphasize eastern Mediterranean sites over western Mediterranean and western European

examples; this bias is clearest in Chapter 24. Apart from this last mentioned gap, the selection

of places and monuments presented here reflects, with reasonable faithfulness, the consensus

that evolved among those who have offered “Ancient Cities” at UNC-Chapel Hill – of whom I,

during the 1980s, was one.

The second source is more distant and indirect. When completing my undergraduate major

in Archaeology at Yale University many years ago, I elected to undergo a final oral examina-

tion in Hellenic city planning. In the presence of distinguished specialists in Mayan, Caribbean,

Chinese, Egyptian, and Near Eastern as well as Classical archaeology, I displayed my imperfect

knowledge of the ancient Greek urban experience. This book in a certain way has offered the

opportunity to redo the oral exam, and with its completion I feel I have truly earned my under-

graduate diploma.

A book like this could not be completed without the assistance of many people. Neslihan

Yılmaz has drawn the bulk of the illustrations. To her my debt is enormous; I am most grateful. I

also wish to thank Bilkent University for awarding me in 2001 a Faculty Research Development

Grant, which relaunched the production of illustrations after several years of stagnation. Thanks

also to Bülent Bozkurt, the Dean of the Faculty of Humanities and Letters, and I

lknur Özgen,

long-time Chair of the Department of Archaeology and History of Art, for support for this proj-

ect over the course of many years.

I would like to express my gratitude to those who have helped by reading chapters, answering

specific queries, procuring illustrations, or simply discussing the aims of “Ancient Cities”: Julian

Bennett, Mary T. Boatwright, J. V. Canby, Ben Claasz Coockson, Toni Cross, Caroline Gates,

Irene Gates, Matthew Glendinning, Nancy de Grummond, Ann Gunter, Salima Ikram, Janet

Jones, Norbert Karg, Dominique Kassab Tezgör, J. Mark Kenoyer, Gerhard Koeppel, Richard

Liebhart, Jerzy Linderski, Steven Lumsden, Erin Maloney, Joann McDaniel, Gregory Possehl,

Nicholas Rauh, Margaret Reid, Gay Robins, Jeremy Rutter, G. Kenneth Sams, Gil Stein, Cheryl

Ward, Patricia Wattenmaker, Laurette Wharton, and Irene Winter. I am especially indebted to

Mary Voigt for reading and commenting on a preliminary draft of Part One and to Jennifer

Tobin for doing the same for Parts Two and Three; and to several anonymous readers for their

criticisms and suggestions. Finally, I thank Richard Stoneman and his colleagues Catherine Bous-

field and Coco Stephenson for exemplary patience and courtesy over many years; and to Marie-

Henriette Gates for her knowledge, sound advice, and encouragement generously offered at

every step along the way.

PREFACE XXI

Preface to the second edition

The second edition of Ancient Cities has the same goal as the first: an introduction to the physi-

cal appearance of cities of the Ancient Near East, Egypt, Greece, and Rome, presented in their

historical context. Theoretical considerations are not emphasized, but the reader who masters

the contents of this book will be well prepared to investigate them. This new edition consists of

the first edition text, corrected for errors, in places modified more extensively, with new sections

on Göbekli Tepe (Chapter 1), Deir el-Medina (Chapter 6), Phoenician cities (Chapter 11), Sinope

(Chapter 18), and Nîmes, London, and Trier (Chapter 24). Illustrations have been augmented

accordingly.

It is a pleasure to express my thanks to the many who have assisted in the preparation of this

new edition. The range and quality of illustrations had been a highlight of the first edition, as

all readers acknowledged. To my great good fortune, Neslihan Yılmaz, the original illustrator,

found time to work on this project, thereby assuring visual consistency from the first edition

to the second. She checked the entire set of illustrations, making minor corrections on some,

redrawing others, and adding several new maps, plans, and line drawings. For her contribution

I am immensely grateful. As before, photographs supplement the drawings. For providing

new photos, I would like to thank Ben Claasz Coockson, Marie-Henriette Gates, and Ahmet

Keten.

Revision of the text has benefited from careful readings by Marie-Henriette Gates (Chap-

ters 1–3 and 8–11), Salima Ikram (Chapters 5 and 6), and, especially for the Greek and Roman

chapters, Valentina DeNardis, Katrina Dickson, Maura Heyn, Eric Kondratieff, and Francesca

Tronchin. These last, instructors who have used Ancient Cities as a textbook, contributed valuable

advice on how to improve its pedagogical effectiveness. The glossary, time line, and companion

website are direct results of their commentary. For help on a large range of issues, thanks are due

to Margaret Andrews and Laura Humphrey (internet resources), Gary Beckman (current views

on the transliteration of Hittite names), Franca Cole (computer wizard), Özlem Eser (biblio-

graphical help), Dominique Kassab Tezgör (on Sinope), Gunnar Lehmann (perspectives on the

Iron Age Levant), Meriç Öztürk (bibliography on late antique cities), Evren Yüzügüzel (internet

resources for the Neolithic and Bronze Age Near East), and Thomas Zimmermann (metallurgy

at Çayönü). Of course, none of this would be happening had not Matthew Gibbons, Routledge’s

editor for Classics, Archaeology, and Museum Studies, urged me to prepare this second edition.

Thanks to his support and encouragement, together with the efficiency and courtesy of his edito-

rial assistants, Lalle Pursglove and Amy Davis-Poynter, and the production staff at Routledge/

Taylor & Francis, this work has come to fruition.

In closing, I would like to remember Toni M. Cross (1945–2002), long-time director of the

Ankara branch of the American Research Institute in Turkey (ARIT), colleague at the Kinet

Höyük excavations, and friend. She didn’t live to hold a copy of this book in her hands, but I

know it would have given her great pleasure. During the many years I worked on the book, she

would tell me, “Just write it. Don’t worry about catching every last mistake; there will always be

people delighted to point out what you have done wrong.” She would have been happy to learn

of the new edition.

Ankara

August 2010

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION XXIII

Timeline

Tower

Fig 1.3

Circular

building

Fig 1.8

8550

BC 8250 6500 6000 5500 5000 3500BC

NEOLITHIC

Plan

Fig 1.6

Houses

Fig 1.10

SUMERIANS:

SEMITIC PEOPLES:

BRONZE AGE

3500BC 3000 2900 2800 2700 2600 2500 2400 2300 2200 2100 2000 1900 1800 1700 1600 1500 1400 1300 1200 1100BC

Early Bronze Age

Middle Bronze Age

Jericho

PPNA + PPNB

Göbekli Tepe

PPNA + PPNB

Çayönü

PPNA + PPNB

Çatalhöyük

Pottery Neolithic

Protoliterate Period

Early Dynastic Period

Uruk

City plan

Fig 2.2

Uruk vase

Fig 2.6

Khafajeh:

Temple oval

Fig 2.12

2350

Neo-Sumerian

Ziggurat of

Ur-Nammu

Fig 3.5

Akkadian

Stele of

Naram-Sin

Fig 3.2

Old Babylonian Period

Isin-Larsa Period

Stele of

Hammurabi

Fig 3.9

First Dynasty of Babylon

Ur: Houses

Fig 3.8

Kassites

OTHER:

CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN MESOPOTAMIA

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

Harappan (mature) Phase

City plan

Fig 4.2

Mohenjo-Daro

HALAF AND UBAID PERIODS

Late Bronze Age

EGYPT

CRETE (MINOANS):

Predynastic

Early Dynastic

Old Kingdom

(Dynasties I–II)

(Dynasties III–VI)

First Intermediate

Period

Middle Kingdom

(Dynasties XI (later)–XII)

Second Intermediate Period

New Kingdom

(Dynasties XVIII–XX)

Narmer

palette

Fig 5.2

Mastaba Tomb

of Merneith,

Abydos

Fig 5.3

Saqqara:

Step pyramid

of Djoser

Fig 5.9

Giza: Pyramid

of Khafre +

Sphinx

Fig 5.11

Kahun:

Plan

Fig 6.1

Thebes:

Area plan

Fig 6.4

Amarna:

House

Fig 6.14

Deir el-

Medina: Plan

Fig 6.15

Old Palace Period New Palace Period

Knossos:

Palace

plan

Fig 7.2

Arkhanes:

House model

Fig 7.8

Volcano erupts

Thera: Island map

Fig 7.9

Mycenaean Period

Shaft

graves:

Mask

Fig 7.13

Pylos:

Palace

plan

Fig 7.17

Troy I Troy II Troy III –V

City wall,

gate and ramp

Fig 8.3

Troy VI Troy VII

Site plan:

Fig 8.2

Old Hittite

Kingdom

Middle

Kingdom

Hittite

Empire

Hattusa:

Plan

Fig 8.4

Hattusa:

Lion Gate

Fig 8.6

Late Cypriot I Late Cypriot II Late Cyp. III

1050

Enkomi: Plan

Fig 9.3

Ingot God

Fig 9.2

Ugarit flourished

Ugarit plan:

Fig 9.5

Uluburun Cape

Gelidonya

THERA

MYCENAEAN GREECE

TROY

HITTITES

UGARIT

AEGEAN

ANATOLIA

CYPRUS

LEVANT

SHIPWRECKS

FIRST MILLENNIUM BC

IRON AGE

1100BC 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100BC (0)

Persians capture

Babylon, 539

Alexander the Great

captures Egypt, 332

Third Intermediate Period

Dynasties XXI–XXIV

Late Period

Dynasties XXV–XXX and Second Persian Occupation

Hellenistic

Alexandria:

City plan

Fig 18.8

Nimrud:

Plan

Fig 10.2

David & Solomon

Jerusalem: First temple

Relief: Attack

on Egyptian

city, from

Nineveh

Fig 10.8

612

BC 539BC

Babylon:

Ishtar gate

Fig 10.13

Phrygians

Medes

Hiram I, of Tyre

Tyre: Plan

Fig 11.2

Atlit:

Harbor plan

Fig 11.5

Expansion

to west: Map

Fig 11.7

Himera

Early city: Plan

Fig 11.10

146

Punic wars

Refounded

by Romans

1100

BC 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100BC (0)

Protogeometric

Period

Geometric Period

Archaic

Classical

Orientalizing

Period

Hellenistic

Lefkandi:

Heroon

Fig 12.5

Zagora:

Plan

Fig 12.3

Samos:

early Heraion

Fig 12.9

Samos:

City plan

Fig 13.6

Athens:

City plan

Fig 14.1

Olympia:

Temple of

Zeus

Fig 15.9

Siphnian

Treasury

Fig 15.2

Theatre,

Epidaurus

Fig 17.4

Priene:

City plan

Fig 17.5

Mausoleum

Fig 17.15

Acropolis, Athens

Fig 16.3

Pergamon:

City plan

Fig 18.3

Delos:

Delos plan

Fig 18.11

EGYPT

MESOPOTAMIA

ISRAEL,

S. LEVANT

ANATOLIA

LEVANT

GREECE

NEO-ASSYRIAN EMPIRE

NEO-BABYLONIAN EMPIRE

Achaemenid Persian Empire

Persepolis:

Plan

Fig 10.15

586

Babylonian Rule

ACHAEMENID

PERSIAN EMPIRE

PHOENICIANS

CARTHAGE

Philistines

Urartians

ITALY

S. ITALY/SICILY

Greek settlement

Etruscans

Paestum (Poseidonia):

Plan

Fig 19.2

Syracuse:

Plan

Fig 19.6

Marzabotto:

Plan

Fig 19.9

Veii, Etruscan

temple type

Fig 19.11

Etruscan-ruled Republic

Funerary urn

Fig 19.14

Republican

Rome:

City plan

Fig 20.1

Cosa:

Forum

Fig 20.6

Rome:

Temple of

Portunus

Fig 20.9

Augustus

Empire

Roman-controlled Roman

Pompeii:

City plan

Fig 22.2

31BC

(0) AD100 200 300 400 500

Samnite

Constantine

the Great

Augustus

Julio-

Claudians

Flavians

Trajan,

Hadrian

et al.

Severans

AD14

AD79

Pompeii:

Atrium,

House of the

Vettii

Fig 22.8

Forum

Fig 22.3

Ostia:

Apt. bldg.

Fig 22.1

Imperial

Rome:

Plan 23.2

Colosseum

Fig 23.17

Pantheon

Fig 23.9

Baths of

Caracalla

Fig 23.21

Palmyra:

Temple

of Bel

Fig 24.11

Athens:

Hadrian’s

Arch

Fig 24.1

Lepcis

Magna:

Plan

Fig 24.14

Trier:

Porta Nigra

Fig 24.18

Diocletian’s

Palace, Split

Fig 25.4

Holy

Sepulchre,

Jerusalem

Fig 25.13

Constantinople:

Plan

Fig 25.14

ETRURIA/CENTRAL ITALY

ROME AND VICINITY

CAMPANIA: POMPEII

POMPEII

ROME AND

OSTIA

ROME: KEY

BUILDINGS

PROVINCES

ROMAN EMPIRE – AD

Augustus of

Primaporta

Fig 21.1

Arch of

Constantine

Fig 25.8

Introduction

Goals, the approach, defining the city,

determining dates, and some practical

information

City forms, their actual function, and the ideas and values that people attach to

them make up a single phenomenon.

(K. Lynch, quoted by Kostof 1991: 40)

This book surveys the cities of the Ancient Near East, Egypt, and the Greek and Roman worlds,

with a focus on their physical appearance, on urban form, and on their cultural and histori-

cal contexts. Architecture is key: the buildings that marked ancient cities, streets, squares, and

other spaces in between; the arrangement of these elements in a city plan; and their functions

in ancient societies. Our aim is to see how buildings and objects made by people long gone

help us understand the urban environments created and lived in by our distant ancestors in the

Mediterranean basin and the Near East. Geographical conditions are also important; they are

highlighted throughout. In addition, through most of the centuries treated here written records

give invaluable information about people and their activities and concerns. The written sources

are constantly called upon to illuminate ancient life. Archaeology as presented in this book is thus

a discipline nourished by many specialties: art and architectural history, urbanism, anthropology,

geography, history, philology and literary studies; Ancient Near Eastern studies; Biblical studies;

Egyptology; and Greek and Roman studies.

Our period is long, from 8500 BC to the fourth century AD. One great interest of a survey

of this sort is the possibility to observe changes in the same region over a great length of time.

Inspiration for any student of the Mediterranean world comes from the great French geographer

and historian Fernand Braudel (1902–85). Although his most famous work, The Mediterranean and

the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, focuses on the Mediterranean in a later period, the

sixteenth century, he offers a framework for understanding environmental and human factors

applicable to ancient as well as medieval and modern conditions. My hope is that readers will

savor the longue durée, as Braudel termed the long chronological perspective, appreciating the

unfolding of human actions in this rich cultural zone.

THE CITY DEFINED

Since the subject of the book is the city, we would do well to define the term. The city is an

inhabited place, as the dictionary says, but of what sort? The word “inhabited” suggests that

demographic considerations will be of prime importance in the concept of the city. The words

“city” and indeed “civilization” come from the Latin civis (citizen) and civitas (community, state,

city; citizenship) via Old French cité (capital city). The Latin word for city, urbs, has given us