Drake G.W.F. (editor) Handbook of Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics
Подождите немного. Документ загружается.
Detailed Contents 1447
47 Electron–Atom, Electron–Ion, and Electron–Molecule Collisions
Philip Burke ....................................................................... 705
47.1 Electron–Atom and Electron–Ion Collisions ............................ 705
47.1.1 Low-Energy Elastic Scattering and Excitation ................. 705
47.1.2 Relativistic Effects for Heavy Atoms and Ions ................. 708
47.1.3 Multichannel Resonance Theory ............................... 710
47.1.4 Multichannel Quantum Defect Theory ......................... 711
47.1.5 Solution of the Coupled Integrodifferential Equations ....... 712
47.1.6 Intermediate and High Energy Elastic Scattering
and Excitation ................................................... 714
47.1.7 Ionization ........................................................ 717
47.2 Electron–Molecule Collisions ............................................ 720
47.2.1 Laboratory Frame Representation ............................. 720
47.2.2 Molecular Frame Representation .............................. 721
47.2.3 Inclusion of the Nuclear Motion ............................... 722
47.2.4 Electron Collisions with Polyatomic Molecules ................ 723
47.3 Electron–Atom Collisions in a Laser Field .............................. 723
47.3.1 Potential Scattering ............................................. 724
47.3.2 Scattering by Complex Atoms and Ions ........................ 725
References ........................................................................ 727
48
Positron Collisions
Robert P. McEachran, Allan Stauffer ............................................ 731
48.1 Scattering Channels ...................................................... 731
48.1.1 Postronium Formation .......................................... 731
48.1.2 Annihilation ..................................................... 732
48.2 Theoretical Methods ...................................................... 733
48.3 Particular Applications ................................................... 735
48.3.1 Atomic Hydrogen ................................................ 735
48.3.2 Noble Gases ...................................................... 735
48.3.3 Other Atoms ..................................................... 736
48.3.4 Molecular Hydrogen ............................................. 737
48.3.5 Other Molecules ................................................. 737
48.4 Binding of Positrons to Atoms ........................................... 737
48.5 Reviews ................................................................... 738
References ........................................................................ 738
49
Adiabatic and Diabatic Collision Processes at Low Energies
Evgueni E. Nikitin ................................................................ 741
49.1 Basic Definitions .......................................................... 741
49.1.1 Slow Quasiclassical Collisions .................................. 741
49.1.2 Adiabatic and Diabatic Electronic States ...................... 742
49.1.3 Nonadiabatic Transitions: The Massey Parameter ............ 742
49.2 Two-State Approximation ............................................... 743
49.2.1 Relation Between Adiabatic and Diabatic Basis Functions .. 743
49.2.2 Coupled Equations and Transition Probabilities
in the Common Trajectory Approximation .................... 744
Detailed Cont.
1448 Detailed Contents
49.2.3 Selection Rules for Nonadiabatic Coupling .................... 745
49.3 Single-Passage Transition Probabilities: Analytical Models ........... 746
49.3.1 Crossing and Narrow Avoided Crossing of Potential Energy
Curves: The Landau–Zener Model in the Common Trajectory
Approximation .................................................. 746
49.3.2 Arbitrary Avoided Crossing and Diverging Potential Energy
Curves: The Nikitin Model in the Common Trajectory
Approximation .................................................. 747
49.3.3 Beyond the Common Trajectory Approximation .............. 748
49.4 Double-Passage Transition Probabilities and Cross Sections ......... 749
49.4.1 Mean Transition Probability and the Stückelberg Phase ..... 749
49.4.2 Approximate Formulae for the Transition Probabilities ...... 750
49.4.3 Integral Cross Sections for a Double-Passage Transition
Probability ....................................................... 751
49.5 Multiple-Passage Transition Probabilities .............................. 751
49.5.1 Multiple Passage in Atomic Collisions ......................... 751
49.5.2 Multiple Passage in Molecular Collisions ...................... 751
References ........................................................................ 752
50
Ion–Atom and Atom–Atom Collisions
A. Lewis Ford, John F. Reading .................................................. 753
50.1 Treatment of Heavy Particle Motion .................................... 754
50.2 Independent-Particle Models
Versus Many-Electron Treatments ...................................... 755
50.3 Analytical Approximations Versus Numerical Calculations ............ 756
50.3.1 Single-Centered Expansion .................................... 757
50.3.2 Two-Centered Expansion ....................................... 758
50.3.3 One-and-a-Half Centered Expansion ......................... 758
50.4 Description of the Ionization Continuum ............................... 758
References ........................................................................ 759
51
Ion–Atom Charge Transfer Reactions at Low Energies
Muriel Gargaud, Ronald McCarroll .............................................. 761
51.1 Molecular Structure Calculations ........................................ 762
51.1.1 Ab Initio Methods ............................................... 762
51.1.2 Model Potential Methods ....................................... 763
51.1.3 Empirical Estimates ............................................. 764
51.2 Dynamics of the Collision ................................................ 765
51.3 Radial and Rotational Coupling Matrix Elements ...................... 766
51.4 Total Electron Capture Cross Sections ................................... 767
51.5 Landau–Zener Approximation .......................................... 769
51.6 Differential Cross Sections ............................................... 769
51.7 Orientation Effects ........................................................ 770
51.8 New Developments ....................................................... 772
References ........................................................................ 772
Detailed Cont.
Detailed Contents 1449
52 Continuum Distorted Wave and Wannier Methods
Derrick Crothers, Fiona McCausland, John Glass, Jim F. McCann,
Francesca O’Rourke, Ruth T. Pedlow
............................................ 775
52.1 Continuum Distorted Wave Method ..................................... 775
52.1.1 Perturbation Theory ............................................. 775
52.1.2 Relativistic Continuum-Distorted Waves ...................... 778
52.1.3 Variational CDW ................................................. 778
52.1.4 Ionization ........................................................ 779
52.2 Wannier Method .......................................................... 781
52.2.1 The Wannier Threshold Law .................................... 781
52.2.2 Peterkop’s Semiclassical Theory ................................ 782
52.2.3 The Quantal Semiclassical Approximation .................... 783
References ........................................................................ 786
53
Ionization in High Energy Ion–Atom Collisions
Joseph H. Macek, Steven T. Manson ............................................ 789
53.1 Born Approximation ..................................................... 789
53.2 Prominent Features ...................................................... 792
53.2.1 Target Electrons ................................................. 792
53.2.2 Projectile Electrons .............................................. 796
53.3 Recent Developments .................................................... 796
References ........................................................................ 796
54
Electron–Ion and Ion–Ion Recombination
M. Raymond Flannery ............................................................ 799
54.1 Recombination Processes ................................................ 800
54.1.1 Electron–Ion Recombination ................................... 800
54.1.2 Positive–Ion Negative–Ion Recombination ................... 800
54.1.3 Balances ......................................................... 800
54.2 Collisional-Radiative Recombination ................................... 801
54.2.1 Saha and Boltzmann Distributions ............................ 801
54.2.2 Quasi-Steady State Distributions .............................. 802
54.2.3 Ionization and Recombination Coefficients ................... 802
54.2.4 Working Rate Formulae ......................................... 802
54.3 Macroscopic Methods .................................................... 803
54.3.1 Resonant Capture-Stabilization Model:
Dissociative and Dielectronic Recombination ................. 803
54.3.2 Reactive Sphere Model: Three-Body Electron–Ion
and Ion–Ion Recombination ................................... 804
54.3.3 Working Formulae for Three-Body Collisional
Recombination at Low Density ................................. 805
54.3.4 Recombination Influenced by Diffusional Drift at High Gas
Densities ......................................................... 806
54.4 Dissociative Recombination ............................................. 807
54.4.1 Curve-Crossing Mechanisms .................................... 807
54.4.2 Quantal Cross Section ........................................... 808
54.4.3 Noncrossing Mechanism ........................................ 810
Detailed Cont.
1450 Detailed Contents
54.5 Mutual Neutralization .................................................... 810
54.5.1 Landau–Zener Probability for Single Crossing at R
X
.......... 811
54.5.2 Cross Section and Rate Coefficient for Mutual Neutralization 811
54.6 One-Way Microscopic Equilibrium Current, Flux,
and Pair-Distributions ................................................... 811
54.7 Microscopic Methods for Termolecular
Ion–Ion Recombination ................................................. 812
54.7.1 Time Dependent Method: Low Gas Density ................... 813
54.7.2 Time Independent Methods: Low Gas Density ................ 814
54.7.3 Recombination at Higher Gas Densities ....................... 815
54.7.4 Master Equations ................................................ 816
54.7.5 Recombination Rate ............................................ 816
54.8 Radiative Recombination ................................................ 817
54.8.1 Detailed Balance and Recombination-Ionization Cross
Sections .......................................................... 817
54.8.2 Kramers Cross Sections, Rates, Electron Energy-Loss Rates
and Radiated Power for Hydrogenic Systems ................. 818
54.8.3 Basic Formulae for Quantal Cross Sections .................... 819
54.8.4 Bound-Free Oscillator Strengths ............................... 822
54.8.5 Radiative Recombination Rate ................................. 822
54.8.6 Gaunt Factor, Cross Sections and Rates for Hydrogenic
Systems .......................................................... 823
54.8.7 Exact Universal Rate Scaling Law and Results for Hydrogenic
Systems .......................................................... 823
54.9 Useful Quantities ......................................................... 824
References ........................................................................ 824
55
Dielectronic Recombination
Michael S. Pindzola, Donald C. Griffin, Nigel R. Badnell ...................... 829
55.1 Theoretical Formulation ................................................. 830
55.2 Comparisons with Experiment .......................................... 831
55.2.1 Low-Z Ions ....................................................... 831
55.2.2 High-Z Ions and Relativistic Effects ........................... 831
55.3 Radiative-Dielectronic Recombination Interference .................. 832
55.4 Dielectronic Recombinationin Plasmas ................................. 833
References ........................................................................ 833
56
Rydberg Collisions: Binary Encounter,
Born and Impulse Approximations
Edmund J. Mansky ............................................................... 835
56.1 Rydberg Collision Processes .............................................. 836
56.2 General Properties of Rydberg States ................................... 836
56.2.1 Dipole Moments ................................................. 836
56.2.2 Radial Integrals ................................................. 836
56.2.3 Line Strengths ................................................... 837
56.2.4 Form Factors ..................................................... 838
56.2.5 Impact Broadening ............................................. 838
Detailed Cont.
Detailed Contents 1451
56.3 Correspondence Principles ............................................... 839
56.3.1 Bohr–Sommerfeld Quantization ............................... 839
56.3.2 Bohr Correspondence Principle ................................ 839
56.3.3 Heisenberg Correspondence Principle ......................... 839
56.3.4 Strong Coupling Correspondence Principle .................... 840
56.3.5 Equivalent Oscillator Theorem ................................. 840
56.4 Distribution Functions ................................................... 840
56.4.1 Spatial Distributions ............................................ 840
56.4.2 Momentum Distributions ....................................... 840
56.5 Classical Theory ........................................................... 841
56.6 Working Formulae for Rydberg Collisions .............................. 842
56.6.1 Inelastic n,-Changing Transitions ............................ 842
56.6.2 Inelastic n → n
Transitions .................................... 843
56.6.3 Quasi-Elastic -Mixing Transitions ............................ 844
56.6.4 Elastic n → n
Transitions .................................. 844
56.6.5 Fine Structure n J → n J
Transitions ...................... 844
56.7 Impulse Approximation .................................................. 845
56.7.1 Quantal Impulse Approximation ............................... 845
56.7.2 Classical Impulse Approximation .............................. 849
56.7.3 Semiquantal Impulse Approximation ......................... 851
56.8 Binary Encounter Approximation ....................................... 852
56.8.1 Differential Cross Sections ...................................... 852
56.8.2 Integral Cross Sections .......................................... 853
56.8.3 Classical Ionization Cross Section .............................. 855
56.8.4 Classical Charge Transfer Cross Section ........................ 855
56.9 Born Approximation ..................................................... 856
56.9.1 Form Factors ..................................................... 856
56.9.2 Hydrogenic Form Factors ....................................... 856
56.9.3 Excitation Cross Sections ........................................ 858
56.9.4 Ionization Cross Sections ....................................... 859
56.9.5 Capture Cross Sections .......................................... 859
References ........................................................................ 860
57
Mass Transfer at High Energies: Thomas Peak
James H. McGuire, Jack C. Straton, Takeshi Ishihara .......................... 863
57.1 The Classical Thomas Process ............................................ 863
57.2 Quantum Description .................................................... 864
57.2.1 Uncertainty Effects .............................................. 864
57.2.2 Conservation of Overall Energy and Momentum .............. 864
57.2.3 Conservation of Intermediate Energy .......................... 865
57.2.4 Example: Proton–Helium Scattering .......................... 865
57.3 Off-Energy-Shell Effects ................................................. 866
57.4 Dispersion Relations ..................................................... 866
57.5 Destructive Interference of Amplitudes ................................. 867
57.6 Recent Developments .................................................... 867
References ........................................................................ 868
Detailed Cont.
1452 Detailed Contents
58 Classical Trajectory and Monte Carlo Techniques
Ronald E. Olson ................................................................... 869
58.1 Theoretical Background .................................................. 869
58.1.1 Hydrogenic Targets .............................................. 869
58.1.2 Nonhydrogenic One-Electron Models ......................... 870
58.1.3 Multiply-Charged Projectiles and Many-Electron Targets ... 870
58.2 Region of Validity ........................................................ 871
58.3 Applications ............................................................... 871
58.3.1 Hydrogenic Atom Targets ....................................... 871
58.3.2 Pseudo One-Electron Targets ................................... 872
58.3.3 State-Selective Electron Capture ............................... 872
58.3.4 Exotic Projectiles ................................................ 873
58.3.5 Heavy Particle Dynamics ........................................ 873
58.4 Conclusions ............................................................... 874
References ........................................................................ 874
59
Collisional Broadening of Spectral Lines
Gillian Peach ...................................................................... 875
59.1 Impact Approximation ................................................... 875
59.2 Isolated Lines ............................................................. 876
59.2.1 Semiclassical Theory ............................................ 876
59.2.2 Simple Formulae ................................................ 877
59.2.3 Perturbation Theory ............................................. 878
59.2.4 Broadening by Charged Particles .............................. 879
59.2.5 Empirical Formulae ............................................. 879
59.3 Overlapping Lines ........................................................ 880
59.3.1 Transitions in Hydrogen and Hydrogenic Ions ................ 880
59.3.2 Infrared and Radio Lines ....................................... 882
59.4 Quantum-Mechanical Theory ........................................... 882
59.4.1 Impact Approximation .......................................... 882
59.4.2 Broadening by Electrons ........................................ 883
59.4.3 Broadening by Atoms ........................................... 884
59.5 One-Perturber Approximation .......................................... 885
59.5.1 General Approach and Utility .................................. 885
59.5.2 Broadening by Electrons ........................................ 885
59.5.3 Broadening by Atoms ........................................... 886
59.6 Unified Theories and Conclusions ....................................... 888
References ........................................................................ 888
Part E Scattering Experiments
60 Photodetachment
David J. Pegg ..................................................................... 891
60.1 Negative Ions ............................................................. 891
60.2 Photodetachment ........................................................ 892
60.2.1 Threshold Behavior ............................................. 892
Detailed Cont.
Detailed Contents 1453
60.2.2 Resonance Structure ............................................ 892
60.2.3 Higher Order Processes ......................................... 893
60.3 Experimental Procedures ................................................ 893
60.3.1 Production of Negative Ions .................................... 893
60.3.2 Interacting Beams ............................................... 893
60.3.3 Light Sources .................................................... 894
60.3.4 Detection Schemes .............................................. 895
60.4 Results ..................................................................... 895
60.4.1 Threshold Measurements ....................................... 895
60.4.2 Resonance Parameters .......................................... 896
60.4.3 Lifetimes of Metastable Negative Ions ......................... 897
60.4.4 Multielectron Detachment ...................................... 898
References ........................................................................ 898
61
Photon–Atom Interactions: Low Energy
Denise Caldwell, Manfred O. Krause ............................................ 901
61.1 Theoretical Concepts ..................................................... 901
61.1.1 Differential Analysis ............................................. 901
61.1.2 Electron Correlation Effects ..................................... 904
61.2 Experimental Methods ................................................... 907
61.2.1 Synchrotron Radiation Source .................................. 907
61.2.2 Photoelectron Spectrometry .................................... 908
61.2.3 Resolution and Natural Width ................................. 910
61.3 Additional Considerations ............................................... 911
References ........................................................................ 912
62
Photon–Atom Interactions: Intermediate Energies
Bernd Crasemann ................................................................ 915
62.1 Overview .................................................................. 915
62.1.1 Photon-Atom Processes ........................................ 915
62.2 Elastic Photon-Atom Scattering ......................................... 916
62.2.1 Rayleigh Scattering ............................................. 916
62.2.2 Nuclear Scattering ............................................... 917
62.3 Inelastic Photon-Atom Interactions .................................... 918
62.3.1 Photoionization ................................................. 918
62.3.2 Compton Scattering ............................................. 919
62.4 Atomic Response to Inelastic Photon-Atom Interactions ............. 919
62.4.1 Auger Transitions ................................................ 919
62.4.2 X-Ray Emission .................................................. 921
62.4.3 Widths and Fluorescence Yields ................................ 921
62.4.4 Multi-Electron Excitations ...................................... 921
62.4.5 Momentum Spectroscopy ....................................... 922
62.4.6 Ultrashort Light Pulses .......................................... 922
62.4.7 Nondipolar Interactions ........................................ 923
62.5 Threshold Phenomena ................................................... 923
62.5.1 Raman Processes ................................................ 924
62.5.2 Post-Collision Interaction ...................................... 925
References ........................................................................ 925
Detailed Cont.
1454 Detailed Contents
63 Electron–Atom and Electron–Molecule Collisions
Sandor Trajmar, William J. McConkey, Isik Kanik .............................. 929
63.1 Basic Concepts ............................................................ 929
63.1.1 Electron Impact Processes ...................................... 929
63.1.2 Definition of Cross Sections ..................................... 929
63.1.3 Scattering Measurements ....................................... 930
63.2 Collision Processes ........................................................ 933
63.2.1 Total Scattering Cross Sections ................................. 933
63.2.2 Elastic Scattering Cross Sections ................................ 933
63.2.3 Momentum Transfer Cross Sections ............................ 933
63.2.4 Excitation Cross Sections ........................................ 933
63.2.5 Dissociation Cross Sections ..................................... 935
63.2.6 Ionization Cross Sections ....................................... 935
63.3 Coincidence and Superelastic Measurements .......................... 936
63.4 Experiments with Polarized Electrons .................................. 938
63.5 Electron Collisions with Excited Species ................................ 939
63.6 Electron Collisions in Traps .............................................. 939
63.7 Future Developments .................................................... 940
References ........................................................................ 940
64
Ion–Atom Scattering Experiments: Low Energy
Ronald Phaneuf .................................................................. 943
64.1 Low Energy Ion–Atom Collision Processes .............................. 943
64.2 Experimental Methods
for Total Cross Section Measurements .................................. 945
64.2.1 Gas Target Beam Attenuation Method ......................... 945
64.2.2 Gas Target Product Growth Method ............................ 945
64.2.3 Crossed Ion and Thermal Beams Method ...................... 945
64.2.4 Fast Merged Beams Method .................................... 946
64.2.5 Trapped Ion Method ............................................ 946
64.2.6 Swarm Method .................................................. 947
64.3 Methods for State and Angular Selective Measurements .............. 947
64.3.1 Photon Emission Spectroscopy ................................. 947
64.3.2 Translational Energy Spectroscopy ............................. 947
64.3.3 Electron Emission Spectroscopy ................................ 948
64.3.4 Angular Differential Measurements ............................ 948
64.3.5 Recoil Ion Momentum Spectroscopy ........................... 948
References ........................................................................ 948
65
Ion–Atom Collisions – High Energy
Lew Cocke, Michael Schulz ....................................................... 951
65.1 Basic One-Electron Processes ............................................ 951
65.1.1 Perturbative Processes .......................................... 951
65.1.2 Nonperturbative Processes ..................................... 955
65.2 Multi-Electron Processes ................................................. 957
65.3 Electron Spectra in Ion–Atom Collisions ................................ 959
65.3.1 General Characteristics ......................................... 959
65.3.2 High Resolution Measurements ................................ 960
Detailed Cont.
Detailed Contents 1455
65.4 Quasi-Free Electron Processes in Ion–Atom Collisions ................ 961
65.4.1 Radiative Electron Capture ..................................... 961
65.4.2 Resonant Transfer and Excitation .............................. 961
65.4.3 Excitation and Ionization ....................................... 961
65.5 Some Exotic Processes .................................................... 962
65.5.1 Molecular Orbital X-Rays ....................................... 962
65.5.2 Positron Production from Atomic Processes ................... 962
References ........................................................................ 963
66
Reactive Scattering
Arthur G. Suits, Yuan T. Lee ...................................................... 967
66.1 Experimental Methods ................................................... 967
66.1.1 Molecular Beam Sources ........................................ 967
66.1.2 Reagent Preparation ............................................ 968
66.1.3 Detection of Neutral Products .................................. 969
66.1.4 A Typical Signal Calculation .................................... 971
66.2 Experimental Configurations ............................................ 971
66.2.1 Crossed-Beam Rotatable Detector ............................. 971
66.2.2 Doppler Techniques ............................................. 973
66.2.3 Product Imaging ................................................. 973
66.2.4 Laboratory to Center-of-Mass Transformation ............... 975
66.3 Elastic and Inelastic Scattering .......................................... 976
66.3.1 The Differential Cross Section .................................. 976
66.3.2 Rotationally Inelastic Scattering ............................... 977
66.3.3 Vibrationally Inelastic Scattering .............................. 977
66.3.4 Electronically Inelastic Scattering .............................. 978
66.4 Reactive Scattering ....................................................... 978
66.4.1 Harpoon and Stripping Reactions .............................. 978
66.4.2 Rebound Reactions ............................................. 979
66.4.3 Long-lived Complexes .......................................... 979
66.5 Recent Developments .................................................... 980
References ........................................................................ 980
67
Ion–Molecule Reactions
James M. Farrar .................................................................. 983
67.1 Instrumentation .......................................................... 985
67.2 Kinematic Analysis ....................................................... 985
67.3 Scattering Cross Sections ................................................. 987
67.3.1 State-to-State Differential Cross Sections ..................... 987
67.3.2 Velocity–Angle Differential Cross Sections ..................... 988
67.3.3 Total Cross Sections with State-Selected Reactants .......... 989
67.3.4 Product–State Resolved Total Cross Sections .................. 989
67.3.5 State-to-State Total Cross Sections ............................ 990
67.3.6 Energy Dependent Total Cross Sections ....................... 990
67.4 New Directions: Complexity and Imaging .............................. 991
References ........................................................................ 992
Detailed Cont.
1456 Detailed Contents
Part F Quantum Optics
68 Light–Matter Interaction
Pierre Meystre ..................................................................... 997
68.1 Multipole Expansion ..................................................... 997
68.1.1 Electric Dipole (E1) Interaction .................................. 998
68.1.2 Electric Quadrupole (E2) Interaction ........................... 998
68.1.3 Magnetic Dipole (M1) Interaction .............................. 999
68.2 Lorentz Atom .............................................................. 999
68.2.1 Complex Notation ............................................... 999
68.2.2 Index of Refraction ............................................. 999
68.2.3 Beer’s Law ....................................................... 1000
68.2.4 Slowly-Varying Envelope Approximation ..................... 1000
68.3 Two-Level Atoms ......................................................... 1000
68.3.1 Hamiltonian ..................................................... 1001
68.3.2 Rotating Wave Approximation ................................. 1001
68.3.3 Rabi Frequency .................................................. 1001
68.3.4 Dressed States ................................................... 1002
68.3.5 Optical Bloch Equations ........................................ 1003
68.4 Relaxation Mechanisms .................................................. 1003
68.4.1 Relaxation Toward Unobserved Levels ........................ 1003
68.4.2 Relaxation Toward Levels of Interest .......................... 1004
68.4.3 Optical Bloch Equations with Decay ........................... 1004
68.4.4 Density Matrix Equations ....................................... 1004
68.5 Rate Equation Approximation ........................................... 1005
68.5.1 Steady State ..................................................... 1005
68.5.2 Saturation ....................................................... 1005
68.5.3 Einstein A and B Coefficients ................................... 1005
68.6 Light Scattering ........................................................... 1006
68.6.1 Rayleigh Scattering ............................................. 1006
68.6.2 Thomson Scattering ............................................. 1006
68.6.3 Resonant Scattering ............................................. 1006
References ........................................................................ 1007
69
Absorption and Gain Spectra
Stig Stenholm ..................................................................... 1009
69.1 Index of Refraction ....................................................... 1009
69.2 Density Matrix Treatment of the Two-Level Atom ..................... 1010
69.3 Line Broadening .......................................................... 1011
69.4 The Rate Equation Limit ................................................. 1013
69.5 Two-Level Doppler-Free Spectroscopy .................................. 1015
69.6 Three-Level Spectroscopy ................................................ 1016
69.7 Special Effects in Three-Level Systems .................................. 1018
69.8 Summary of the Literature ............................................... 1020
References ........................................................................ 1020
Detailed Cont.