Dacko S.G. The Advanced Dictionary of Marketing Putting Theory to Use
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spillover effect 490
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Crane, Andrew, and Desmond, John (2002). ‘Societal Marketing and Morality,’
European Journal of Marketing, 36(5–6), June, 548–569.
Kotler, Philip (1972). ‘A Generic Concept of Marketing,’ Journal of Marketing, 36(2),
April, 46–54.
Marketing Management
Krapfel, Robert E., Jr. (1982). ‘Marketing by Mandate,’ Journal of Marketing, 46(3),
Summer, 79–85.
Consumer Behavior
Grubb, Edward L., and Grathwohl, Harrison L. (1967). ‘Consumer Self-Concept,
Symbolism and Market Behavior: A Theoretical Approach,’ Journal of Marketing,
31(4), Part 1, October, 22–27.
Marketing Research
Punj, Girish, and Stewart, David W. (1983). ‘Cluster Analysis in Marketing Research:
Review and Suggestions for Application,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 20(2), May,
134–148.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kotler, P. (1972). ‘What Consumerism Means for Marketers,’ Harvard Business Review,
50, 48–57.
societal marketing see enlightened marketing
societal marketing concept see marketing management orientation
soft goods see goods
spam marketing see mass marketing; viral marketing
specialty product see product classifications, consumer
spillover effect
DESCRIPTION
Any effect of an action that has an effect on a different area than the area
where the action, especially when it is performed in excess, is clearly expected,
intended, and desired to have a significant effect.
KEY INSIGHTS
Spillover effects, in essence, are those effects that ‘spill over’ to areas
other than the areas where effects are widely anticipated, particularly
when such actions are performed in excess. Such effects may be bene-
ficial or detrimental to another area. In marketing, for example, a firm
engaged in a strategic alliance with another firm may experience nega-
tive spillover effects in the form of increased consumer mistrust from cer-
tain negative (e.g. unethical) behaviors of the other firm. Spillover effects
may also occur in the area of consumer buying behavior. According to
research on spillover effects by Janakiraman, Meyer, and Morales (2006),
for example, both unexpected price increases and decreases in quality
cause people to buy fewer discretionary items, and to pass up other goods
offered at attractive, discounted prices.
491 sponsorship marketing
KEY WORDS Marketing planning, unexpected consequences
IMPLICATIONS
While the planning of marketing activity necessarily involves developing
an understanding and expectation about the intended effects of such
activity, it may also be the case that such activity extends to areas
beyond that which is given primary consideration. At the same time,
certain unplanned actions (e.g. unethical behavior of a strategic alliance
partner) may have effects on areas other than those where the effect
is clearly expected. While spillover effects may occur in virtually any
area of marketing, marketers must strive to consider how and to what
extent marketing-related actions, whether planned or unplanned, may
positively or negatively influence strategic outcomes desired by the mar-
keter. In some strategic planning efforts, for example, consideration of
spillover effects may lead firms to develop contingency plans to address
their possible occurrence.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Balachander, S., and Ghose, S. (2003). ‘Reciprocal Spillover Effects: A Strategic
Benefit of Brand Extensions,’ Journal of Marketing, 67, January, 4–12.
Simonin, Bernard, and Ruth, Julie A. (1998). ‘Is a Company Known by the Company
it Keeps? Assessing the Spillover Effects of Brand Alliances on Consumer Brand
Attitudes,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 35(1), 30–42.
Erdem, T., and Sun, B. (2002). ‘An Empirical Investigation of the Spillover Effects
of Advertising and Sales Promotions in Umbrella Branding,’ Journal of Marketing
Research, 39, November, 408–420.
Marketing Management
Ahluwalia, R., Unnava, H. R., and Burnkrant, R. E. (2001). ‘The Moderating Role of
Commitment on the Spillover Effect of Marketing Communications,’ Journal of
Marketing Research, 38, 458–470.
Roehm, Michelle L., and Tybout, Alice M. (2006). ‘When Will a Brand Scandal Spill
Over, and How Should Competitors Respond?’ Journal of Marketing Research, 43(3),
August, 366–373.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Votolato, N. L., and Unnava, H. R. (2006). ‘Spillover of Negative Information on
Brand Alliances,’ Journal of Consumer Psychology, 16(2), 196–202.
Janakiraman, Narayan, Meyer, Robert J., and Morales, Andrea C. (2006). ‘Spillover
Effects: How Consumers Respond to Unexpected Changes in Price and Quality,’
Journal of Consumer Research, 33, 361–369.
sponsorship marketing
DESCRIPTION
A marketing approach involving a firm’s support of an event, activity, or
unrelated organization.
KEY INSIGHTS
Unlike other marketing approaches which involve a clearly explicit
message communicated to consumers (e.g. direct marketing—see direct
marketing), sponsorship marketing is a marketing approach involving
communication via indirect argument and emotional appeal. Thus, by
sports marketing 492
sponsoring sports, competitions, performing arts, or charities, for exam-
ple, consumers associate characteristics of such events, activities, or
organizations with those of the sponsoring organization. A benefit of
sponsorship marketing to some organizations that use it is that it can
be less expensive than advertising. In addition, it may act as a morale
booster to the organization’s employees.
KEY WORDS Activities, events, unrelated organizations, organizational
support
IMPLICATIONS
Sponsorship marketing’s effectiveness stems from the recognition and
acceptance of an event, activity, or organization by the target market
of interest to a firm. To the extent the sponsored event, activity, or
organization sponsored has a quality reputation, sponsorship marketing’s
effectiveness is enhanced.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Meenaghan, Tony (1991). ‘Sponsorship: Legitimising the Medium,’ European Journal
of Marketing, 25(11), 5–10.
Gwinner, Kevin (1997). ‘A Model of Image Creation and Image Transfer in Event
Sponsorship,’ International Marketing Review, June, 14(3), 145–158.
Marketing Management
Crimmins, James, and Horn, Martin (1996). ‘Sponsorship: From Management Ego
Trip to Marketing Success,’ Journal of Advertising Research, 36(4), 11–21.
Meenaghan, John A. (1983). ‘Commercial Sponsorship,’ European Journal of Market-
ing, 17(7).
International Marketing
Farrelly, Francis John, Quester, Pascale G., and Burton, Richard (1997). ‘Integrating
Sports Sponsorship into the Corporate Marketing Function: An International
Comparative Study,’ International Marketing Review, June, 14(3), 170–182.
Cornwell, T. B. (1997). ‘The Use of Sponsorship-Linked Marketing Programs by
Tobacco Firms: International Public Policy Issues,’ Journal of Consumer Affairs, 31(2),
238–254.
Marketing Research
Cornwell, T. B., Weeks, C. S., and Roy, D. P. (2005). ‘Sponsorship-Linked Marketing:
Opening the Black Box,’ Journal of Advertising (Utah), 34(2), 21–42.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
McDonald, Colin (1991). ‘Sponsorship and the Image of the Sponsor,’ European
Journal of Marketing, 25(11), 31–38.
sports marketing
(also called sport marketing)
DESCRIPTION
Marketing involving associations with, or promotion of, sports-related events,
activities, and organizations.
493 sports marketing
KEY INSIGHTS
While sports marketing clearly involve the use of any number of market-
ing approaches for the benefit of a sports organization, activity, event,
or cause, and their stakeholders, sports marketing may also involve
organizational associations with sports entities and phenomena for the
marketing benefit of an organization not directly involved in such activ-
ities or initiatives. An organization’s association with sports in any form
may be through sponsorship, for example (see sponsorship marketing),
or by affinity, where the firm aims to make use of fans’ affinities with par-
ticular sports organizations or activities to present such individuals with
products or services associated with those areas (see affinity marketing).
KEY WORDS Sponsorship, events, activities, sports organizations, athletics
IMPLICATIONS
Given that sports marketing encompasses a broad range of marketing
approaches, it can potentially provide the marketer with multiple means
of effectively reaching and interacting with the firm’s target market in
support of the firm’s marketing objectives. As the appeal of many sports-
related events, activities, and organizations is related to sport’s character-
istic elements of structured competition, teamwork, physical dexterity,
physical exertion, and the pursuit of superior physical performance,
the area provides marketers with numerous opportunities to create and
attach rich meanings to their product and service offerings.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Bridgewater, Susan (2007). ‘Alternative Paradigms and Sport Marketing,’ in John
Beech and Simon Chadwick (eds.), The Marketing of Sport. Harlow: FT Prentice
Hall.
Shank, Matthew D. (1999). Sports Marketing: A Strategic Perspective. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Marketing Management
Speed, R., and Thompson, P. (2000). ‘Determinants of Sports Sponsorship
Response,’ Academy of Marketing Science, 28(2), 226–238.
Services Marketing
Tomlinson, M., Buttle, F., and Moores, B. (1995). ‘The Fan as Customer: Customer
Service in Sports Marketing,’ Journal of Hospitality and Leisure Marketing, 3(1), 19–36.
Marketing Research
Shani, D., Sandler, D. M., and Long, M. M. (1992). ‘Courting Women Using Sports
Marketing: A Content Analysis of the US Open,’ International Journal of Advertising,
11(4), 377–392.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Beech, John, and Chadwick, Simon (eds.) (2007). The Marketing of Sport . Harlow: FT
Prentice Hall.
Mullin, Bernard James, Hardy, Stephen, and Sutton, William Anthony (2000). Sport
Marketing. Champaign, Ill.: Human Kinetics.
Graham, S., Goldblatt, J. J., and Neirotti, L. D. (2001). The Ultimate Guide to Sports
Marketing, 2nd edn. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Shilbury, David, Quick, Shayne, and Westerbeek, Hans (1998). Strategic Sport Mar-
keting. St Leonards, NSW: Allen & Unwin.
spurious correlation 494
spurious correlation
DESCRIPTION
A misleading conclusion that a correlation exists between data when in fact
there is no such relationship.
KEY INSIGHTS
A spurious correlation between two variables may be a result of a sta-
tistical aberration, as opposed to a true causal relationship, or it may be
due to a situation where a third variable influences each of the variables
in the same way, thereby making it appear that the two variables are
related. Efforts to reduce the possibility of spurious correlations include
research designs that hold relevant variables constant in order to more
readily observe causal effects on given variables of interest.
KEY WORDS Statistical analysis, correlations, misleading conclusions
IMPLICATIONS
Marketing researchers must be concerned about research conclusions
that may involve spurious correlations. Robust research designs with
suitable controls must be developed and implemented to minimize their
possible occurrence.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Research
Bradburd, Ralph M. (1980). ‘Advertising and Market Concentration: A Re-
examination of Ornstein’s Spurious Correlation Hypothesis,’ Southern Economic
Journal, 47(2), October, 531–539.
Wensley, R. (1997). ‘Explaining Success: The Rule of Ten Percent and the Example
of Market Share,’ Business Strategy Review, 8(1), 63–70.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Simon, H. A. (1954). ‘Spurious Correlation: A Causal Interpretation,’ Journal of the
American Statistical Association, 49, 467–479.
stakeholder theory
DESCRIPTION
Theory concerned with the identification and evaluation of groups of stake-
holders of a firm for subsequent managerial attention and action.
KEY INSIGHTS
Stakeholder theory as advocated by researchers including Freeman (1984)
recognizes the potential importance of stakeholder groups beyond the
traditionally acknowledged groups comprising employees, suppliers, cus-
tomers, and investors. Communities, political groups, government bod-
ies, and trade associations are examples of such stakeholders. Concep-
tual elements of stakeholder theory enable the identification of such
groups as well as assisting in firm decisions to treat such groups as
important stakeholders to which the firm should be responsible and
accountable. Issues such as stakeholder power, legitimacy, and urgency
495 standardization
of stakeholder claims are developed and integrated in stakeholder the-
ory. While it can be argued that it may not be possible to balance the
needs of all stakeholders against each other, the theory nevertheless
provides a basis for understanding and negotiating possible stakeholder
conflicts.
KEY WORDS Organizational stakeholders, marketing stakeholders, groups
IMPLICATIONS
Beyond meeting customer needs and balancing such needs with those
of the firm, its employees, and its investors, marketing has become
increasingly concerned with meeting the needs of its many and varied
stakeholders. Stakeholder theory provides a means for marketers to iden-
tify and evaluate better groups and parties that should be considered key
stakeholders relative to the firm as a whole as well as any marketing
strategy approach initiative.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Polonsky, M. J. (1995). ‘A Stakeholder Theory Approach to Designing Environ-
mental Marketing Strategy,’ Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing, 10(3), 29–
42.
Polonsky, M. J. (1996). ‘Stakeholder Management and the Stakeholder Matrix:
Potential Strategic Marketing,’ Journal of Market Focused Management, 1(3), 209–
230.
Payne, A., Ballantyne, D., and Christopher, M. (2005). ‘A Stakeholder Approach
to Relationship Marketing Strategy,’ European Journal of Marketing, 39(7–8), 855–
871.
Donaldson, T., and Preston, L. 1995. ‘The Stakeholder Theory of the Corporation:
Concepts, Evidence, and Implications,’ Academy of Management Review, 20(1), 65–
91.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Freeman, R. E. (1984). Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach. Boston: Pitman.
Friedman, A. L., and Miles, S. (2002). ‘Developing Stakeholder Theory,’ Journal of
Management Studies, 39(1), 1–21.
Mitchell, R. K., Agle, B. R., and Wood, D. J. (1997). ‘Toward a Theory of Stakeholder
Identification and Salience: Defining the Principle of Who and What Really
Counts,’ Academy of Management Review, 22(4), 853–886.
standardization
DESCRIPTION
The process or strategy of developing standardized goods or services to meet
the needs and preferences of a particular market or set of consumers, where
such markets and consumers are typically examined and managed within an
international marketing context.
KEY INSIGHTS
As an element of a firm’s international marketing strategy, standard-
ization relies on a uniform marketing effort over similar worldwide
segments. As opposed to adaptation or customization in the firm’s
marketing strategies, standardization aims to benefit from ‘marketing
standardization 496
universals,’ which are consumer behaviors within a segment and con-
sumer preferences within a particular product category that are invariant
across cultures (Dawar and Parker 1994).
KEY WORDS Uniform marketing, marketing universals
IMPLICATIONS
The choice between standardization and adaptation across markets must
explicitly consider the similarities and differences in consumer attitudes
and behavior in a particular market (Dawar and Parker 1994). Pursuing
the international marketing approach of standardization entails the iden-
tification of a segment of consumers who do not differ across cultures
in their preferences for a particular good or service offering, allowing
for a standardized marketing program across countries and cultures.
In considering standardization, marketers must be careful in drawing
conclusions about the similarities between markets, where too much
standardization, for example, may leave room for competitors to meet
local needs to a greater extent.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Jain, Subhash C. (1989). ‘Standardization of International Marketing Strategy: Some
Research Hypotheses,’ Journal of Marketing, 53(1), January, 70–79.
Anderson, Eugene W., Fornell, Claes, and Rust, Roland T. (1997). ‘Customer Satis-
faction, Productivity, and Profitability: Differences between Goods and Services,’
Marketing Science, 16(2), 129–145.
Marketing Management
Ferrell, O. C., and Skinner, Steven J. (1988). ‘Ethical Behavior and Bureaucratic
Structure in Marketing Research Organizations,’ Journal of Marketing Research,
25(1), February, 103–109.
Cavusgil, S. Tamer, and Zou, Shaoming (1994). ‘Marketing Strategy–Performance
Relationship: An Investigation of the Empirical Link in Export Market Ventures,’
Journal of Marketing, 58(1), January, 1–21.
International Marketing
Szymanski, David M., Bharadwaj, Sundar G., and Varadarajan, P. Rajan (1993). ‘Stan-
dardization versus Adaptation of International Marketing Strategy: An Empirical
Investigation,’ Journal of Marketing, 57(4), October, 1–17.
Global Marketing
Samiee, Saeed, and Roth, Kendall (1992). ‘The Influence of Global Marketing Stan-
dardization on Performance,’ Journal of Marketing, 56(2), April, 1–17.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dawar, Niraj, and Parker, Philip (1994). ‘Marketing Universals: Consumers’ Use of
Brand Name, Price, Physical Appearance, and Retailer Reputation as Signals of
Product Quality,’ Journal of Marketing, 58(2), April, 81–95.
star see product portfolio analysis
statistical validity see validity
status quo bias see endowment effect
status quo marketing see defensive marketing
497 stealth marketing
stealth marketing
(also called undercover marketing or under-the-radar marketing)
DESCRIPTION
Marketing that is not immediately perceived as marketing.
KEY INSIGHTS
Stealth marketing is a relatively unconventional marketing approach
where customers are targeted without realizing they are being marketed
to. It has similarities with guerrilla marketing in that promotional activ-
ities may be unobvious to the marketer’s target market and of relatively
low cost, but where the effects of the effort can be widespread (see
guerrilla marketing). Stealth marketing is often performed on a face-to-
face basis in ways where customers are usually unaware of such activities
as being marketing attempts, since the approach involves interaction
with customers at places or times when their defences are most likely to
be down (Kaikati and Kaikati 2004). An example is when a celebrity drinks
a certain branded beverage in public but where consumers are unaware
that the celebrity is being paid to do so. The goal of an undercover stealth
marketing campaign is to generate a buzz in the market that can reach
consumers and spread among them spontaneously. It may actually rely
more on consumer trust than more conventional marketing approaches
if, for example, it involves a trusted celebrity who endorses the product
in public and the behavior passes unconsciously to consumers. A variant
of under-the-radar marketing is lean-over marketing, where individuals are
paid by a firm to intentionally situate themselves within earshot of the
firm’s target market and then begin talking about the merits of the firm’s
particular product or service offering, where the aim is to catch attention
and interest and generate a subsequent market buzz.
KEY WORDS Hidden marketing, unobvious marketing, questionable mar-
keting practice
IMPLICATIONS
Stealth marketing may involve less financial risk and can be cost effective
if it generates the sought-after buzz in the market. Its problems reside
in its ethical implications. If consumers conclude that they are being
manipulated into liking the product, the company runs the risk of a
backlash. Thus, the ethics of a stealth marketing approach is a topic
worthy of debate in a marketer’s firm. Nevertheless, the appeal of its use
revolves around the possibility that its effects, while very hard to predict,
may ultimately be a high level of buzz or word-of-mouth communication
that spreads very quickly.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Biener, L., Nyman, A. L., Kline, R. L., and Albers, A. B. (2004). ‘Adults Only: The
Prevalence of Tobacco Promotions in Bars and Clubs in the Boston Area,’ Tobacco
Control, 13(4), 403–408.
Rushkoff, Douglas, Dretzin, Rachel, and Goodman, Barak (2001). ‘Merchants of
Cool,’ Frontline. Boston: PBS, WGBH.
STP marketing 498
Online Marketing
Dubas, K. M., and Brennan, I. (2002). ‘Marketing Implications of Webcasting and
Extranets,’ Marketing Intelligence and Planning, 20(4–5), 223–228.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kaikati, A. M., and Kaikati, J. G. (2004). ‘Stealth Marketing: How to Reach Con-
sumers Surreptitiously,’ California Management Review, 46(4), 6–22.
STEP analysis see macroenvironment
store brand see private label
STP marketing
DESCRIPTION
A methodical approach in marketing planning whereby a marketer follows a
three-step process involving segmentation, targeting, and positioning.
KEY INSIGHTS
STP marketing adopts the view that segmentation is a key part of the
competitive strategy of many organizations. As such, it can be argued
that the tasks of identifying, characterizing, and targeting appropriate
marketing segments form the basis for much of strategic marketing and
an organization’s strategic thinking more generally. In the process of STP
marketing, the marketer gives critical consideration to segmentation,
which is the identification of groups of customers that have similarities in
characteristics or needs who are likely to exhibit similar purchase behav-
ior (Smith 1956); targeting, or selecting particular segments to target; and
positioning, which necessarily involves selecting a desirable positioning
strategy (see positioning) and subsequently developing marketing pro-
grams that convey the desired brand position.
KEY WORDS Marketing planning, planning process, segmentation, target-
ing, positioning
IMPLICATIONS
As part of the overall strategic marketing planning process, a marketer
may conduct an internal analysis of the firm, a competitive analysis,
and a market analysis. All such marketing research efforts may support
the firm’s efforts to engage in STP marketing, where, after establishing
market segments and targeting appropriate segments, positioning plays
a centrally important role after segmenting and targeting the appropriate
market segments. As a follow-on to the STP marketing process, marketers
must then ensure the development of effective marketing programs and
mixes, implement such efforts, and then ensure their adequate control.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Weinstein, Art (1998). Defining your Market: Winning Strategies for High-Tech, Industrial,
and Service Firms. New York: Haworth Press.
Marketing Management
Dibb, Sally, and Simkin, Lyndon (1996). The Market Segmentation Workbook: Target
Marketing for Marketing Managers. New York: Routledge.
499 strategic approaches
Online Marketing
Geissler, Gary L. (2001). ‘Building Customer Relationships Online: The Web Site
Designers’ Perspective,’ Journal of Consumer Marketing, 18(6), November, 488–
502.
Services Marketing
Michalska-Dudek, I. (2003). ‘STP Marketing Concept in Tourism Enterprises,’ Prace
Naukowe: Akademii Ekonomicznej Imienia Oskara Langego We Wroclawiu, 964, 212–223.
Marketing Research
Wind, Yoram (1978). ‘Issues and Advances in Segmentation Research,’ Journal of
Marketing Research, 15, August, 317–337.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Weinstein, Art (1997). ‘Strategic Segmentation: A Planning Approach for Mar-
keters,’ Journal of Segmentation in Marketing, 1(2), 7–16.
Smith, Wendell (1956). ‘Product Differentiation and Market Segmentation as Alter-
native Marketing Strategies,’ Journal of Marketing, 21, July, 3–8.
Kotler, Philip (1999). Kotler on Marketing: How to Create, Win, and Dominate Markets.
New York: Free Press.
straight rebuy see industrial buyer behavior
strategic approaches
DESCRIPTION
Substantially different ways of focusing the firm’s strategic marketing man-
agement efforts.
KEY INSIGHTS
In strategic marketing management, firms are faced with varying stra-
tegic approaches to pursue. Two notable approaches include strategic
vision and strategic opportunism. Strategic vision defines a company’s
direction with respect to the scope of the product/service markets in
which it will compete, orientation in terms of product or service posi-
tioning, and scale of operation. A strategic vision is focused on the future,
where it involves an insightful analysis of the current and anticipated
market environment to determine where the greatest opportunities and
threats are at present and where they will be in the future. Strategic
opportunism, on the other hand, focuses mainly on identifying and
exploiting the immediate market opportunities at hand. This strategy
seeks to leverage the company’s existing strategic assets and competen-
cies and avoid commitment, as the future is viewed as uncertain due to
the dynamic nature of the changing business environment.
KEY WORDS Vision, opportunism
IMPLICATIONS
While each strategic approach clearly has certain benefits attached to it,
each also carries certain strategic risks. Strategic vision faces a danger of
strategic stubbornness whereas strategic opportunism faces a danger of
strategic drift. For either approach, marketers must therefore be vigilant