Dacko S.G. The Advanced Dictionary of Marketing Putting Theory to Use
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symbolic interaction theory 520
environment, whereas opportunities and threats are linked to its external
environment.
KEY WORDS Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats
IMPLICATIONS
A SWOT analysis can potentially provide some important insights into
the factors that are encouraging or hampering the achievement of a
firm’s objectives. It can help answer questions related to where the firm
is currently and where it is planning to move and it can be of value in
helping direct a firm’s strategy development.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Brooksbank, Roger (1994). ‘The Anatomy of Marketing Positioning Strategy,’ Mar-
keting Intelligence & Planning, 12(4), May, 10–14.
Li, Shuliang, Davies, Barry, Edwards, John, Kinman, Russell, and Duan, Yanqing
(2002). ‘Integrating Group Delphi, Fuzzy Logic and Expert Systems for Market-
ing Strategy Development: The Hybridisation and its Effectiveness,’ Marketing
Intelligence & Planning, 20(5), September, 273–284.
Marketing Research
Anwar, S. F., and Siddique, S. R. (2000). ‘SWOT with a Quantitative Outlook: Re-
visiting the Analysis,’ Proceedings of the 2000 IEEE International Conference on Man-
agement of Innovation and Technology, Institute of Business Administration, Dhaka
University, 1, 128–133.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Piercy, Nigel, and Giles, William (1989). ‘Making SWOT Analysis Work,’ Marketing
Intelligence & Planning, 7(5), June, 5–7.
symbiotic marketing see cooperative marketing
symbolic adoption see adoption process
symbolic interaction theory
DESCRIPTION
Sociological theory or theories aimed at describing and explaining human
action and interaction through the exchange of symbols or meaningful
communication.
KEY INSIGHTS
Symbolic interaction theory, or more broadly symbolic interactionism
as developed and advocated by Blumer (1969) and other researchers,
adopts the view that individual action is based on the meanings that the
action has for the individual, where such meanings arise out of social
interactions, and where social actions are a result of the combination of
individual actions. The emphasis of the theory is thus not on character-
izing the objective reality of individuals and society but rather on the
meanings individuals associate with subjectively defined objects.
KEY WORDS Symbolic interactionism, individual action, social interaction
521 synergy
IMPLICATIONS
In adopting a symbolic interaction perspective to product consumption
and use, marketers can obtain potentially useful insights into complex
areas of consumer behavior. In particular, the theoretical perspective
suggests that there are psychological and social meanings that individ-
ual consumers attach to products, where such meanings are a result of
the interactions between the individual and others and their associated
actions with the products. Such knowledge, in turn, can inform the
development of appropriate marketing strategies aimed at increasing a
product’s perceived value among consumers.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Leigh, J. H., and Gabel, T. G. (1992). ‘Symbolic Interactionism: Its Effects on Con-
sumer Behavior and Implications for Marketing Strategy,’ Journal of Consumer
Marketing, 9(1), 27–38.
Consumer Behavior
Solomon, Michael R. (1983). ‘The Role of Products as Social Stimuli: A Sym-
bolic Interactionism Perspective,’ Journal of Consumer Research, 10(3), December,
319–329.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Blumer, H. (1969). Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice-Hall.
syndicated research see marketing research
synergy
DESCRIPTION
A harmonious combination of parts that achieves coordination and which
results in enhanced joint outcomes.
KEY INSIGHTS
Within many firms with marketing functions, improving cooperation
between the firm’s marketing department and other functions is viewed
as important in achieving combined goals. An example is how many
leading firms recognize that marketing and R&D functions need to work
together in harmony in order for the firm to continue to be successful
(Rein 2004).
KEY WORDS Enhanced performance
IMPLICATIONS
Synergy leads to increased customer value, lower operating costs, and
reduced investment. A lack of synergy within a firm can result in tensions
and struggles within functional areas of the firm. As marketing involves
identifying and serving customers, the requirements of marketing often
have implications for many other business functions, such as R&D, pro-
duction, and finance. Harmoniously integrating the work of business
systems theory 522
functions operating at the front and the back ends of the firm’s business
processes through improved organizational interactions can therefore
provide a basis for greater marketing success.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Wind, Yoram, and Robertson, Thomas S. (1983). ‘Marketing Strategy: New Direc-
tions for Theory and Research,’ Journal of Marketing, 47(2), Spring, 12–25.
Shani, David, and Chalasani, Sujana (1993). ‘Exploiting Niches Using Relationship
Marketing,’ Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing, 8(4), December.
New Product Development
Griffin, Abbie, and Hauser, John R. (1996). ‘Integrating R&D and Marketing: A
Review and Analysis of the Literature,’ Journal of Product Innovation Management,
13(3), May, 191.
Cooper, R. G., and Kleinschmidt, E. J. (1987). ‘New Products: What Separates
Winners from Losers?’ Journal of Product Innovation Management, 4(3), September,
169.
Song, X. Michael, and Parry, Mark E. (1997). ‘The Determinants of Japanese New
Product Successes,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 34(1), Special Issue on Innovation
and New Products, February, 64–76.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Rein, G. L. (2004). ‘From Experience: Creating Synergy between Marketing and
Research and Development,’ Journal of Product Innovation Management, 21(1),
33–43.
systems theory
(also called general systems theory)
DESCRIPTION
A theory aimed at understanding, explaining, and predicting the behaviors of
complex systems where the emphasis is on studying systems as a whole.
KEY INSIGHTS
Based on pioneering research by von Bertalanffy (1968) on general sys-
tems theory, the theory adopts a holistic view of systems behavior,
where systems are more than the sums of their parts. In the theory, the
term systems is viewed broadly and as such, encompasses the study of
organizations, management, and marketing from perspectives including
that of economics, psychology, and sociology. Systems theory views a
system as being composed of interacting and interdependent parts where
relationships emerge to form the whole.
KEY WORDS Systems, holistic perspective, complexity
IMPLICATIONS
Principles and concepts from systems theory can be potentially applied to
obtain insights into many areas of marketing where systems are present.
Such systems may be relatively focused and defined (e.g. departments
within organizations) or quite broad (e.g. all of marketing practice).
Recognizing principles including that where every system is an inter-
action of elements manifesting as a whole allows the potential to study
523 systems theory
relationships among elements and interactions among elements that may
be otherwise overlooked without such a holistic view. Some services
within marketing, for example, are sufficiently complex as to warrant
consideration of a systems approach for measuring service quality.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Research
Sirgy, M. Joseph (1984). Marketing as Social Behavior: A General Systems Theory. New
York: Praeger, 1984.
Johnson, R. L., Tsiros, M., and Lancioni, R. A. (1995). ‘Measuring Service Quality: A
Systems Approach,’ Journal of Services Marketing, 9(5), 6–21.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bertalanffy, Ludwig von (1968). General System Theory: Foundations, Development, Appli-
cations. New York: George Braziller.
Bertalanffy, Ludwig von (1972). ‘The History and Status of General Systems Theory,’
Academy of Management Journal, 15(4), December, 407–426.
T
tactic
DESCRIPTION
Tools or actions designed to operationalize a higher-level strategy.
KEY INSIGHTS
Marketing plans which are established to meet strategic goals are, in
essence, tactics. They can be viewed as short-term measures for address-
ing or solving a specific problem, such as increasing sales or enhancing
the market share of a product.
KEY WORDS Tools, plans, operationalization, resource deployment
IMPLICATIONS
Tactics have direct implications on the firm and its consumers as they
represent detailed plans of action for accomplishing higher-level objec-
tives. While some marketing tactics may be perceived by consumers
as acceptable marketing practice (e.g. see price discrimination), other
tactics may be seen as unethical and manipulative (e.g. see low-ball
technique).
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
McKee, Daryl O., Varadarajan, P. Rajan, and Pride, William M. (1989). ‘Strategic
Adaptability and Firm Performance: A Market-Contingent Perspective,’ Journal of
Marketing, 53(3), July, 21–35.
Marketing Management
Hunt, Shelby D., and Chonko, Lawrence B. (1984). ‘Marketing and Machiavellian-
ism,’ Journal of Marketing, 48(3), Summer, 30–42.
Robin, Donald P., and Reidenbach, R. Eric (1987).‘Social Responsibility, Ethics, and
Marketing Strategy: Closing the Gap between Concept and Application,’ Journal
of Marketing, 51(1), January, 44–58.
Services Marketing
Dibb, S., and Simkin, L. (1993). ‘Strategy and Tactics: Marketing Leisure Facilities,’
Service Industries Journal, 13(3), 110–124.
Consumer Behavior
Hoyer, Wayne D. (1984). ‘An Examination of Consumer Decision Making for a
Common Repeat Purchase Product,’ Journal of Consumer Research, 11(3), December,
822–829.
Marketing Research
Thomas, J. S. (2001). ‘A Methodology for Linking Customer Acquisition to Customer
Retention,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 38(2), 262–268.
Marcus, C. (1998). ‘A Practical Yet Meaningful Approach to Customer Segmenta-
tion,’ Journal of Consumer Marketing, 15(5), 494–504.
525 tactical marketing
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Nagle, T. T., and Holden, R. K. (1995). The Strategy and Tactics of Pricing. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
tactical marketing
DESCRIPTION
An approach that moves marketing from the strategic to the operational level,
designing and implementing plans for the short term.
KEY INSIGHTS
Marketing strategies are usually the driver of tactical marketing actions
that influence the consumer directly, such as advertising programs and
other operational actions that require marketing expenditure (Rust,
Ambler, Carpenter, Kumar, and Srivastava 2004). In some firms, however,
marketing strategy initiatives may take a back seat to that which is
urgent, resulting in fire-fighting activity which resembles tactical mar-
keting but where such activity may or may not be as effective as when it
is based on a sound marketing strategy.
KEY WORDS Operationalization, short-term plans
IMPLICATIONS
Setting tactical marketing plans directly affects the firm’s financial
resources as it relates to marketing mix programs to be implemented. As
such, marketers should seek to develop a sound understanding of tactical
marketing approaches as it is clearly the implementation of the firm’s
marketing in the marketplace.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
McDonald, Malcolm (1989). Ten Barriers to Marketing Planning. Cranfield: Cranfield
School of Management.
Marketing Management
McDonald, Malcolm, and Morris, Peter (2000). The Marketing Plan in Colour: A Pictorial
Guide for Managers. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Services Marketing
Zeithaml, Valarie A., Parasuraman, A., and Berry, Leonard L. (1985). ‘Problems and
Strategies in Services Marketing,’ Journal of Marketing, 49(2), Spring, 33–46.
International Marketing
Samiee, Saeed, and Roth, Kendall (1992). ‘The Influence of Global Marketing Stan-
dardization on Performance,’ Journal of Marketing, 56(2), April, 1–17.
Rust, R. T., Ambler, T., Carpenter, G. S., Kumar, V., and Srivastava, R. K. (2004).
‘Measuring Marketing Productivity: Current Knowledge and Future Directions,’
Journal of Marketing, 68(4), 76–89.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Rust, R. T., Ambler, T., Carpenter, G. S., Kumar, V., and Srivastava, R. K. (2004).
‘Measuring Marketing Productivity: Current Knowledge and Future Directions,’
Journal of Marketing, 68(4), 76–89.
tailored marketing see one-to-one marketing
target marketing 526
takeoff
DESCRIPTION
The transitional point in the life cycle of a new product or service where it
moves from introduction to growth to achieve its viability.
KEY INSIGHTS
Takeoff is a concept in diffusion models of new products or services that
represents an important stage in the product’s market development. It is
usually represented by a dramatic increase in sales. It requires an increase
in support of the offering, through investing more resources where mar-
keters make decisions on issues including investing in research on the
product/process, spending more on promotion, and enhancing distribu-
tion (Golder and Tellis 1997).
KEY WORDS New product introductions, growth, product viability
IMPLICATIONS
The concept of takeoff is in opposition to the assumption of constant and
linear growth pattern of new products. Hence, takeoff and its implica-
tions have to be foreseen and accounted for from early planning stages. A
better understanding of its nature, drivers, systematic patterns, and when
it takes place can provide the marketer with highly beneficial insights for
marketing planning and strategy development.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Agarwal, Rajshree, and Bayus, Barry L. (2002). ‘The Market Evolution and Sales
Take-off of Product Innovations,’ Management Science, 48, August, 1024–1041.
International Marketing
Tellis, G. J., Stremersch, S., and Yin, E. (2002). ‘The International Takeoff of New
Products: The Role of Economics, Culture, and Country Innovativeness,’ Report of
the Marketing Science Institute Cambridge Massachusetts, ISSU 121.
Marketing Research
Tellis, Gerard J., Golder, Peter N., and Foster, Joseph A. (2004). ‘Predicting Sales
Takeoff for Whirlpool’s New Personal Valet,’ Marketing Science, 23(2), 180–191.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Golder, Peter N., and Tellis, Gerard J. (1997). ‘Will It Ever Fly? Modeling the Takeoff
of Really New Consumer Durables,’ Marketing Science, 16(3), 256–270.
target costing see pricing strategies
target marketing
DESCRIPTION
A marketing approach involving evaluations of different market segments’
attractiveness and selecting one or more segments to enter.
KEY INSIGHTS
Target marketing involves the use of market segmentation for subse-
quently directing marketing efforts at one or more specific groups of
527 targeting
customers considered beneficial or desirable by the marketer. The aim
of target marketing is to identify the most viable segments—ones where
a firm can profitably generate the most customer value and sustain such
value over time. Through such focus, marketers are able to develop and
provide offerings that may be positioned as attractive or appealing to the
target market.
KEY WORDS Segment attractiveness
IMPLICATIONS
Target marketing necessarily involves effective targeting, one of the most
important concepts in marketing. As such, marketers should strive to
develop a strong working knowledge of targeting strategies along with a
solid understanding of targeting’s conceptual and practical relationship
with segmentation and positioning as a means to ensure the development
and pursuit of viable marketing strategies.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Freeman, K. M. (1992). ‘Target Marketing: The Logic of It All,’ Journal of Consumer
Marketing, 9(3), 15–18.
Marketing Management
Smith, N. Craig, and Martin, Elizabeth Cooper (1997). ‘Ethics and Target Marketing:
The Role of Product Harm and Consumer Vulnerability,’ Journal of Marketing,
61(3), July, 1–20.
Marketing Research
Rossi, Peter E., McCulloch, Robert E., and Allenby, Greg M. (1996). ‘The Value of
Purchase History Data in Target Marketing,’ Marketing Science, 15(4), 321–340.
Zahavi, J., and Levin, N. (1997). ‘Applying Neural Computing to Target Marketing,’
Journal of Direct Marketing, 11(1), 5–22.
Consumer Behavior
Aaker, J. L., Brumbaugh, A. M., and Grier, S. A. (2000). ‘Nontarget Markets and
Viewer Distinctiveness: The Impact of Target Marketing on Advertising Atti-
tudes,’ Journal of Consumer Psychology, 9(3), 127–140.
Ringold, Debra Jones (1995). ‘Social Criticisms of Target Marketing,’ American Behav-
ioral Scientist, 38(4), 578–592.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dibb, Sally, and Simkin, Lyndon (1996). The Market Segmentation Workbook: Target
Marketing for Marketing Managers. London: Routledge.
target profit pricing see pricing strategies
targeting
DESCRIPTION
The process of selecting one or more market segments that the firm decides
to serve with its offerings.
KEY INSIGHTS
Targeting involves the process of defining the specific needs and pro-
files of customer market segments and selecting from those segments
telemarketing 528
the ones to target with appropriate offerings, strategies, and marketing
programs. The process of targeting involves a number of strategies from
which marketers may select, including concentrated targeting (e.g. focus-
ing on a particular niche), undifferentiated targeting (e.g. adopting a mass
marketing strategy), and differentiated targeting (e.g. adopting a selective
marketing strategy). Advertising, along with many other forms of market-
ing communication, for example, may involve targeting particular groups
of consumers with particular messages which are specifically aimed at
audiences possessing the characteristics of such consumer groups.
KEY WORDS Segment selection
IMPLICATIONS
At a strategic level, making choices about targeting strategies to use
in relation to chosen customer segments is something that can have a
major influence on a firm’s overall operations in the selected markets.
At an operational level, appropriate targeting in, say, advertising has the
potential to improve the advertiser’s return on investment and make an
advertising campaign efficient in accomplishing its objectives.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
McLauglin, R. (2000). ‘Targeting Teens,’ Target Marketing, 23(1), 84–87.
Moschis, G. P., Lee, E., and Mathur, A. (1997). ‘Targeting the Mature Market:
Opportunities and Challenges,’ Journal of Consumer Marketing, 14(4), 282–293.
Mahajan, Vijay, and Muller, Eitan (1998). ‘When is it Worthwhile Targeting the
Majority instead of the Innovators in a New Product Launch?’ Journal of Marketing
Research, 35, November, 488–495.
Marketing Research
Sivadas, E., Grewal, R., and Kellaris, J. (1998). ‘The Internet as a Micro Marketing
Tool: Targeting Consumers through Preferences Revealed in Music Newsgroup
Usage,’ Journal of Consumer Research, 41, 179–186.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kotler, Philip, and Armstrong, Gary (2006). Principles of Marketing, 11th edn. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
technological environment see macroenvironment
telemarketing
(also called telephone marketing)
DESCRIPTION
A direct marketing approach that involves using the telephone as a medium
to market products or services to consumers.
KEY INSIGHTS
Telemarketing is a form of direct marketing (see direct marketing).
There are two forms of telemarketing: inbound and outbound. In
inbound telemarketing, prospective customers call the company to seek
529 telescoping
assistance to get a product or ask for information in response to an
advertisement or offer (see inbound marketing). In outbound telemar-
keting, the company proactively calls potential customers, which can be
businesses or consumers, to offer its product or service to them (see
outbound marketing). Some companies use their own telemarketing
built-in capabilities whereas others use other telemarketing firms when
it is more cost effective.
KEY WORD Telephone
IMPLICATIONS
The telemarketing approach is an ‘invisible medium’ that has grown
to be largely and successfully used as a direct marketing technique. Its
advantage to a firm is that its high cost can be offset by the maximum
consumer selectivity and interactivity it offers. The power to capture
the attention of the prospect and hold them in place represents both
its strengths and weaknesses, the latter being because if the message
is poorly timed, perceived, or executed, it can end long-term customer
relationships (Nash 2000).
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Webster, Frederick E., Jr. (1992). ‘The Changing Role of Marketing in the Corpora-
tion,’ Journal of Marketing, 56(4), October, 1–17.
Boyd, D. E. (1996). ‘Defensive Marketing’s Use of Post-Purchase Telecommunica-
tions to Create Competitive Advantages: A Strategic Analysis,’ Journal of Consumer
Marketing, 13(1), 26–34.
Marketing Research
Talvinen, J. M. (1995). ‘Information Systems in Marketing: Identifying Opportuni-
ties for New Applications,’ European Journal of Marketing, 29(1), 8.
Public Policy
Petty, R. D. (2000). ‘Marketing without Consent: Consumer Choice and Costs,
Privacy, and Public Policy,’ Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 19(1), 42–53.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Nash, Edward L. (1982). Direct Marketing: Strategy, Planning, Execution. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
telephone marketing see telemarketing
telescoping
DESCRIPTION
Among individuals asked to place the time of a past event, the systematic
tendency for individuals to recall that recent events occurred farther back in
time and distant events occurred more recently than is actually the case.
KEY INSIGHTS
Telescoping, where individuals systematically err in their recall and
reporting of the timing of events, is a generally pervasive phenom-
enological tendency among individuals. Backward telescoping is where