Dacko S.G. The Advanced Dictionary of Marketing Putting Theory to Use
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trickle down theory 540
and fostering a sense of tribal integration and belongingness (Muniz and
O’Guinn 2001). (See brand community.) In adopting the approach, the
marketer should then focus on the creation of a linking value rather than
a use value particular only to such products and services. In a sense, the
tribal marketing approach abandons certain traditional notions of mar-
keting, as it emphasizes the importance of identifying shared experience
of consumers in their tribal groupings and puts such knowledge at the
center of the firm’s business model and marketing.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Cova, B. (1997). ‘Community and Consumption: Towards a Definition of the “Link-
ing Value” of Product or Services,’ European Journal of Marketing, 31, 297–316.
Marketing Research
Cova, B., and Cova, V. (2001). ‘Tribal Aspects of Postmodern Consumption Research:
The Case of French In-line Roller Skaters,’ Journal of Consumer Behavior, 1(1), 67–76.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cova, B., and Cova, V. (2002). ‘Tribal Marketing: The Tribalisation of Society and
Its Impact on the Conduct of Marketing,’ European Journal of Marketing, 36(5/6),
595–620.
Muniz, A. M., and O’Guinn, T. C. (2001), ‘Brand Community,’ Journal of Consumer
Research, 27(4), March, 412–32.
trickle down theory
DESCRIPTION
A theory of fashion propagation or diffusion positing a social pattern of
influence in which each social class is influenced by a higher social class.
KEY INSIGHTS
Proposed and developed by Simmel (1904), trickle down theory posits
a social class influence on fashion propagation and change, where new
styles are first adopted by upper class elites and then spread gradually to
lower classes. In this context, fashion is viewed as a social institution that
allows individuals to emulate others (e.g. others of higher social status)
as well as differentiate themselves from others as a member of a par-
ticular social class or group. While the theory has received considerable
attention in fashion research, it is now generally accepted among fashion
researchers that fashions propagate more across social classes rather than
down (or up). Nevertheless, the trickle down theory remains important
in fashion research due to its pioneering nature, its conceptual develop-
ment, and its use in supporting subsequent and related explanations of
fashion diffusion and change.
KEY WORDS Fashion, diffusion, social class
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers seeking to understand better the process of diffusion for par-
ticular fashion goods can potentially benefit from a greater knowledge
of trickle down theory as it provides a basis for developing similar or
541 trickle down theory
complementary explanations and an approach for comparing with alter-
native or competing explanations.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Consumer Behavior
King, C. W. (1963). ‘Fashion Adoption: A Rebuttal to the “Trickle Down Theory,” ’
in G. B. Sproles (ed.), Perspectives of Fashion, Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing
Company, 31–39.
Sproles, George B. (1981). ‘Analyzing Fashion Life Cycles: Principles and Perspec-
tives,’ Journal of Marketing, 45(4), Autumn, 116–124.
Law, K. M., Zhang, Z. M., and Leung, C. S. (2004). ‘Fashion Change and Fashion Con-
sumption: The Chaotic Perspective,’ Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management,
8(4), 362–374.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Simmel, Georg (1904). ‘Fashion,’ International Quarterly, 10, 130–155.
txt marketing see mobile marketing
U
unconventional marketing
(also called on-the-edge marketing, contrarian marketing, or radical
marketing)
DESCRIPTION
Marketing approaches that depart from accepted standard practice in mar-
keting.
KEY INSIGHTS
A firm’s marketing approach is clearly unconventional when it is con-
trary to the practices of other firms in the same industry or market.
Durgee (1992) calls this contrarian marketing, where a firm adopts a market-
ing approach that is diametrically opposed to contemporary marketing
strategies. Firms adopting unconventional marketing approaches may
find that going ‘against the grain’ of standard practice or commonly
defined attributes relative to a product or service category, for example,
enables the firm to position its offering in a nonconformist way. Accord-
ing to Hill and Rifkin (1999), any marketing approach or strategy that
challenges existing long-held conventional marketing approaches can be
considered to be ‘radical marketing,’ with guerrilla marketing being a
notable example (see guerrilla marketing).
KEY WORDS Counter-intuitive marketing, non-traditional marketing
IMPLICATIONS
The changing face and role of marketing in a global environment charac-
terized by relative instability has made it inevitable that new marketing
approaches, strategies, and tactics will evolve. While the benefits of any
unconventional marketing approach ultimately depend on the nature of
the offering and the target audience, the adoption of such approaches
may ultimately depend on how conservative the firm is in trying and
accepting new means of reaching and engaging customers.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Sutton, R. (2002). ‘Ready for Radical Marketing,’ Credit Union Magazine, 34,
September.
Clancy, Kevin, and Krieg, Peter (2000). Counter-Intuitive Marketing. New York: The
Free Press.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Durgee, Jeffrey F. (1992). ‘Contrarian Marketing,’ Journal of Consumer Marketing,9,
Winter, 51–59.
543 undifferentiated marketing
Hill, Sam, and Rifkin, Glenn (1999). Radical Marketing: From Harvard to Harley, Lessons
from Ten that Broke the Rules and Made it Big. New York: HarperBusiness.
undercover marketing see stealth marketing
under-the-radar marketing see stealth marketing
undifferentiated marketing
DESCRIPTION
A marketing approach that forgoes segmentation and product tailoring,
targeting an audience with a single offering and a single marketing mix.
KEY INSIGHTS
Undifferentiated marketing was a prevailing approach of the product-
oriented era of marketing, where businesses viewed the marketplace
as an aggregate market and, hence, focused on the common needs of
customers rather than their differences. Today, such an approach is often
associated with serving commodity markets where firms strive to be a
low-cost producer (Jain 1985).
KEY WORDS Single offering
IMPLICATIONS
As a marketing approach, undifferentiated marketing can provide the
advantage of cost leadership through producing a comparatively standard
and low-cost product and offering it to customers at the lowest prevailing
market price (Dalgic and Leeuw 1994). As such, the marketer’s firm
can pursue higher sales volumes in comparison to firms using a niche
marketing strategy which are in the pursuit of higher profit margins (see
also niche marketing).
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Holbrook, Morris B., and Holloway, Douglas V. (1984). ‘Marketing Strategy and the
Structure of Aggregate, Segment-Specific, and Differential Preferences,’ Journal of
Marketing, 48(1), Winter, 62–67.
Biggadike, E. Ralph (1981). ‘The Contributions of Marketing to Strategic Manage-
ment,’ Academy of Management Review, 6(4), October, 621–632.
Kara, A., and Kaynak, E. (1997). ‘Markets of a Single Customer: Exploiting Con-
ceptual Developments in Market Segmentation,’ European Journal of Marketing,
31(11/12), 873–895.
Marketing Management
Dawes, J., and Worthington, S. (1996). ‘Customer Information Systems and Com-
petitive Advantage: A Case Study of a Top Ten Building Society,’ International
Journal of Bank Marketing, 14(4), 36–44.
Consumer Behavior
Addis, M., and Holbrook, M. B. (2001). ‘On the Conceptual Link between Mass
Customisation and Experiential Consumption: An Explosion of Subjectivity,’
Journal of Consumer Behavior, 1(1), 50–66.
unintended consequences 544
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Jain, Subhash C. (1985). Marketing Planning and Strategy. Cincinnati: South-Western
Publishing Co.
Dalgic, T., and Leeuw, M. (1994). ‘Niche Marketing Revisited: Concept, Applications
and Some European Cases,’ European Journal of Marketing, 28(4), 39–56.
uniform-delivered pricing see pricing strategies
unintended consequences
DESCRIPTION
Situations where marketing activities result in organizational or consumer
outcomes which are unexpected or unanticipated, which can be positive or
negative.
KEY INSIGHTS
It is not always possible to foresee the full consequences of many mar-
keting actions. At the firm level, in responding to economic uncertainties
with pricing decisions, some marketing managers follow risk-averse poli-
cies which can result in unanticipated consequences that entail a good
deal of risk (Guiltinan 1976). Among consumers, unintended exposure
to media and promotional messages can bring unexpected benefits of
better information and learning gains to the consumers, even though
such media and message exposures may be seen as intrusive at times
(Redmond 2005). In other situations, successful marketing activities by
firms can result in negative impact on consumers, society, or other stake-
holders in an unanticipated way as they have not taken into consideration
the wider exchange process (Fry and Polonsky 2004). Environmental
impact of production processes can be an example, which involves a
wider responsibility on the part of a business.
KEY WORDS Unexpected consequences, unanticipated consequences
IMPLICATIONS
Outcomes that are not expected can be seen in some situations as side
effects of marketing approaches or strategies. They imply that marketing
approaches and tactics have to be analyzed in depth to avoid negative
unanticipated consequences. In a marketplace, dyadic relationships only
encompassing the firm and its customers may result in unintended con-
sequences for other parties. This implies that it is imperative for firms to
make effective decisions based on a trade off between the positive and
the negative outcomes that may result from their operations. Allowing
for a wider process of exchange through taking all possible stakeholders
into consideration can reduce the probability of unanticipated negative
outcomes.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Menon, Ajay, and Menon, Anil (1997). ‘Enviropreneurial Marketing Strategy:
The Emergence of Corporate Environmentalism as Market Strategy,’ Journal of
Marketing, 61(1), January, 51–67.
545 unique value effect
Kitchen, P. J. (1994). ‘The Marketing Communications Revolution: A Leviathan
Unveiled?’ Marketing Intelligence and Planning , 12(2), 19–25.
Marketing Management
Fisher, Robert J., Maltz, Elliot, and Jaworski, Bernard J. (1997). ‘Enhancing Commu-
nication between Marketing and Engineering: The Moderating Role of Relative
Functional Identification,’ Journal of Marketing, 61(3), July, 54–70.
Social Marketing
Brenkert, G. G. (2002). ‘Ethical Challenges of Social Marketing,’ Journal of Public Policy
and Marketing, 21(1), 14–25.
Ringold, D. J. (2002). ‘Boomerang Effect: In Response to Public Health Interventions.
Some Unintended Consequences in the Alcoholic Beverage Market,’ Journal of
Consumer Policy, 25(1), 27–63.
Marketing Research
Tybout, Alice M., and Zaltman, Gerald (1974). ‘Ethics in Marketing Research: Their
Practical Relevance,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 11(4), November, 357–368.
Advertising
Goldberg, Marvin E., and Gorn, Gerald J. (1978). ‘Some Unintended Consequences
of TV Advertising to Children,’ Journal of Consumer Research, 5(1), June, 22–29.
Holbrook, Morris B. (1987). ‘Mirror, Mirror, on the Wall, What’s Unfair in the
Reflections on Advertising?’ Journal of Marketing, 51(3), July, 95–103.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fry, Marie-Louise, and Polonsky, Michael Jay (2004). ‘Examining the Unintended
Consequences of Marketing,’ Journal of Business Research , 57(11), November, 1303–
1306.
Guiltinan, J. P. (1976), ‘Risk-Aversive Pricing Policies: Problems and Alternatives,’
Journal of Marketing, 40(1), 10–15.
Redmond, William H. (2005). ‘Intrusive Promotion as Market Failure: How Should
Society Impact Marketing?’ Journal of Macromarketing, 25, 12–21.
unique value effect
DESCRIPTION
An effect on consumer price sensitivity resulting from a product or service
offering’s unique features and benefits.
KEY INSIGHTS
When a product or service offers unique value to potential customers as
a result of having one or more desirable features or benefits that are not
available or replicated in competing products in the market, the unique
value of the product or service has the potential to significantly influ-
ence the consumer’s price sensitivity toward the offering. In particular,
uniqueness in the value of an offering is associated with a lowering of
consumer price sensitivity to the offering as well as an increase in the
price the consumer is willing to pay for it.
KEY WORDS Value, uniqueness, price sensitivity, willingness-to-pay
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers involved in developing new product or service offerings as
well as in setting their prices should strive to understand consumer
price sensitivity to the offering in order to manage its price effectively.
unmet need 546
Recognizing how and to what extent lower price sensitivity and higher
willingness-to-pay may be achievable as a result of developing and pro-
viding an offering of unique value can be beneficial in setting prices
and in managing price changes when a product’s unique value varies as
competing product characteristics change.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Pricing
Kupiec, B., and Revell, B. (2001). ‘Measuring Consumer Quality Judgments,’ British
Food Journal, 103(1), 7–22.
Sullivan, P. (2003). ‘Comparing Price Sensitivity Research Models for New Products,’
Product Innovation and Management, August, School of Business Administration,
Portland State University.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Rao, Vithala R. (1984). ‘Pricing Research in Marketing: The State of the Art,’ Journal
of Business, 57(1), Part 2, S39–S60.
unmet need
DESCRIPTION
An unsatisfied utility that can initiate firms to strategically develop products
or services that can fill that gap for customers.
KEY INSIGHTS
A firm searching for a distinctive competitive advantage can find market-
ing opportunities in pursuing unmet needs for existing target segments
or other previously untargeted segments in the market. This can be done
by studying consumers’ unmet needs and finding ways to meet them
through new or modified product or service offerings. Consumers are
sometimes unaware of such needs, and marketing efforts and communi-
cation tactics can help bring these to the conscious level, stressing their
importance and converting them into effective demand.
KEY WORDS Needs, gaps
IMPLICATIONS
Using unmet needs as a base for developing marketing strategies may
involve a need-based segmentation analysis (Peltier and Schribrowsky
1997) that studies specific target segments for the benefits they seek
and the motives underlying their purchases. To the extent that such
knowledge is translated expediently into a commercialized offering by
the marketer’s firm, the firm has the opportunity to have a distinctive
first-mover advantage among competitors in the marketplace.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Hoekstra, J. C., Leeflang, P. S., and Wittink, D. R. (1999). ‘The Customer Concept:
The Basis for a New Marketing Paradigm,’ Journal of Market Focused Management,
4(1), 43–76.
Jaworski, B., Kohli, A. K., and Sahay, A. (2000). ‘Market-Driven Versus Driving
Markets,’ Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 28(1), 45–54.
Plummer, Joseph T. (1974). ‘The Concept and Application of Life Style Segmenta-
tion,’ Journal of Marketing, 38(1), January, 33–37.
547 unrealistic optimism
Marketing Management
Bearden, William O., and Teel, Jesse E. (1983). ‘Selected Determinants of Consumer
Satisfaction and Complaint Reports,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 20(1), February,
21–28.
Services Marketing
Kennett, P. A., Moschis, G. P., and Bellenger, D. N. (1995). ‘Marketing Financial
Services to Mature Consumers,’ Journal of Services Marketing, 9(2), 62–72.
Marketing Research
Deshpande, Rohit, Farley, John U., and Webster, Jr., Frederick E. (1993). ‘Corpo-
rate Culture, Customer Orientation, and Innovativeness in Japanese Firms: A
Quadrad Analysis,’ Journal of Marketing, 57(1), January, 23–37.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Peltier, J. W., and Schribrowsky, J. A. (1997). ‘The Use of Need-Based Segmentation
for Developing Segment-Specific Direct Marketing Strategies,’ Journal of Direct
Marketing, 11(4), 53–62.
unrealistic optimism
DESCRIPTION
Ajudgmental biasinan individual’sestimationof thelikelihoodof futureevents
oroutcomeswherethelikelihoodofpositiveeventsoccurringisoverestimated
and the likelihood of negative events occurring is underestimated.
KEY INSIGHTS
Based on pioneering research by Lund (1925) and Cantril (1928) and sub-
sequent research by Weinstein (1980), unrealistic optimism is considered
to be a pervasive phenomenon, where individuals tend to believe that
desirable events or outcomes are more likely to happen to them than
others and undesirable events or outcomes are less likely to happen to
them than others. Such a bias leads individuals to have a distorted, overly
optimistic view of the future that, while serving to enhance an individ-
ual’s sense of well-being, may nevertheless be potentially detrimental to
others to the extent others perceive such assessments as providing them
with unbiased, albeit subjective, guidance on the likelihood of occurrence
of future events.
KEY WORDS Bias, optimism
IMPLICATIONS
As experts are prone to the judgmental bias of unrealistic optimism, mar-
keting strategists should be concerned about the possibility of an expert
providing overly optimistic forecasts of future events. Obtaining a mix
of views by outsiders—i.e. individuals not having close, personal stakes
attached to the occurrence of particular future events or outcomes—may
help to reduce unrealistic optimism. Marketers should also recognize that
consumers may have this judgmental bias which may, in turn, influence
consumers’ beliefs, attitudes, or consumption behaviors associated with
beneficial personal activities (e.g. need for healthy eating) and harmful
personal activities (e.g. smoking). Understanding and overcoming such
a judgmental bias among consumers enables the phenomenon to be
upper echelons theory 548
recognized as an explicit challenge for marketers to address through
effective marketing communications.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
International Marketing
Heine, S. J., and Lehman, D. R. (1995). ‘Cultural Variation in Unrealistic Optimism:
Does the West Feel More Invulnerable than the East?’ Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 68(4), 595–607.
Marketing Communications
Weinstein, Neil D. (1983). ‘Reducing Unrealistic Optimism about Illness Suscepti-
bility,’ Health Psychology, 2, 11–20.
Davidson, K., and Prkachin, K. (1997). ‘Optimism and Unrealistic Optimism Have
an Interacting Impact on Health-Promoting Behavior and Knowledge Changes,’
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23(6), 617–625.
Henriksen, L., and Flora, J. A. (1999). ‘Third-Person Perception and Children: Per-
ceived Impact of Pro- and Anti-Smoking Ads,’ Communication Research, 26(6), 643–
665.
Marketing Strategy
Tichy, G. (2004). ‘The Over-Optimism among Experts in Assessment and Foresight,’
Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 71(4), 341–63.
Consumer Behavior
Taylor, S. E., and Brown, J. D. (1988). ‘Illusion and Well Being: A Social Psychological
Perspective on Mental Health,’ Psychological Bulletin, 103, 193–210.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Lund, F. H. (1925). ‘The Psychology of Belief: A Study of its Emotional and Volitional
Determinants,’ Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 20, 63–81.
Cantril, H. (1928). ‘The Prediction of Social Events,’ Journal of Abnormal and Social
Psychology, 33, 364–389.
Weinstein, Neil D. (1980). ‘Unrealistic Optimism about Future Life Events,’ Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(5), November, 806–820.
McKenna, F. P. (1993). ‘It Won’t Happen to Me: Unrealistic Optimism or Illusion of
Control?’ British Journal of Psychology, 84(1), 39–50.
unrelated diversification see product-market investment strategies
unsought product see product classifications, consumer
upper echelons theory
DESCRIPTION
A theory that considers organizational outcomes to be partially predicted by
top managements’ background characteristics.
KEY INSIGHTS
Based on research by Hambrick and Mason (1984) and subsequent
researchers, upper echelons theory posits that, as upper level managers
are selectively perceptive and boundedly rational, a behavioral element
derived from managements’ idiosyncratic characteristics should be evi-
dent in the outcomes of the organization. In this context, the theory pro-
vides a rationale for examining the nature and extent of the relationship
between various managerial backgrounds and organizational outcomes.
549 utility
While the strength of research findings for the theory may ultimately be
dependent on the specific management background characteristics exam-
ined (e.g. career experience, gender) as well as specific organizational
outcomes examined (e.g. profitability, diversification posture), there is
general support for the view that certain organizational outcomes can
be at least partially predicted by certain top management characteristics.
KEY WORDS Top management, background characteristics, organizational
performance
IMPLICATIONS
Marketing strategists should recognize the possibility that organizational
outcomes may be influenced to a significant degree by the background
characteristics of the organization’s top management. To the extent that
marketing strategy development is also influenced by top management
backgrounds, marketing strategy outcomes may be affected as well.
While it is difficult to generalize how and to what extent there may be
such influences, knowledge of upper echelons theory-based research may
provide marketers with insights that may influence top management
selection and/or more effective marketing management and strategy
development and implementation.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Herrmann, Pol, and Datta, Deepak K. (2005). ‘Relationships between Top Man-
agement Team Characteristics and International Diversification: An Empirical
Investigation,’ British Journal of Management, 16(1), March, 69.
Michel, J., and Hambrick, D. C. (1992). ‘Diversification Posture and Top Manage-
ment Team Characteristics,’ Academy of Management Journal, 35, 9–37.
Wiersema, M. F., and Bantel, K. A. (1992). ‘Top Management Team Demography
and Corporate Strategic Change,’ Academy of Management Journal, 35, 91–121.
Marketing Management
Waldman, D. A., Ramirez, G. G., House, R. J., and Puranam, P. (2001). ‘Does Lead-
ership Matter? CEO Leadership Attributes and Profitability under Conditions of
Perceived Environmental Uncertainty,’ Academy of Management Journal, 44(1), 134–
143.
Burke, L. A., and Steensma, H. K. (1998). ‘Toward a Model for Relating Executive
Career Experiences and Firm Performance,’ Journal of Managerial Issues, 10(1), 86–
102.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hambrick, Donald C., and Mason, Phyllis A. (1984). ‘Upper Echelons: The Organi-
zation as a Reflection of Its Top Managers,’ Academy of Management Review, 9(2),
April, 193–206.
Hambrick, D. C. (2005). ‘Upper Echelons Theory: Origins, Twists and Turns, and
Lessons Learned,’ in K. G. Smith and M. A. Hitt (eds.), Great Minds in Management:
The Process of Theory Development. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 109–127.
utility
DESCRIPTION
A satisfaction derived from acquisition and consumption of an offering.