Dacko S.G. The Advanced Dictionary of Marketing Putting Theory to Use
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S
sagacity segmentation see segmentation
salutory products see societal classification of products
sampling bias or error see bias
satisfaction see customer satisfaction
satisficing
DESCRIPTION
A cognitive heuristic for simplifying decision making that involves making
decisions that are considered likely to lead to satisfactory or sufficiently
acceptable results as opposed to optimal results.
KEY INSIGHTS
Based on research by Simon (1955, 1956), the concept of satisfying reflects
the view that individual cognitive capacities and decision processes are
not strictly rational and, as such, are not guaranteed to arrive at optimal
results. Deviations from rationality arise due to limitations in individual
information-processing ability and the costs involved in comparing all
available options. Individual decision making, as well as group and organ-
izational decision making, may therefore involve satisficing as a means
to cope or work more easily within limitations on information-processing
capabilities and lessen the cost of comparing available options. With
satisficing, the aim of decision making may therefore be to achieve some
minimal level of performance rather than optimal performance. As an
example, individuals and organizations engaged in satisficing behaviors
may choose to regularly adopt plans for future action in much the same
way they have always done in the past if past performance has always
been minimally satisfactory.
KEY WORDS Decision making, satisfactory outcomes
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers involved in making strategic as well as tactical decisions should
consider the extent to which objectives of the decisions involve satisficing
as opposed to optimization. Drawing explicit attention to satisficing in
marketing decision making and decision-making processes can poten-
tially assist decision makers interested in achieving results further in the
461 scale
direction of optimality to evaluate more critically the decision-making
processes involved and its associated costs and benefits.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Winter, S. G. (2000). ‘The Satisficing Principle in Capability Learning,’ Strategic
Management Journal, 21(10–11), 981–996.
Kahn, K. B., and Myers, M. B. (2005). ‘Framing Marketing Effectiveness as a Process
and Outcome,’ Marketing Theory, 5(4), 457–469.
Marketing Research
Holbrook, A. L., Green, M. C., and Krosnick, J. A. (2003). ‘Telephone versus Face-
to-Face Interviewing of National Probability Samples with Long Questionnaires:
Comparisons of Respondent Satisficing and Social Desirability Response Bias,’
Public Opinion Quarterly, 67(1), 79–125.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Simon, H. A. (1955). ‘A Behavioral Model of Rational Choice,’ Quarterly Journal of
Economics, 59, 99–118.
Simon, H. A. (1956). ‘Rational Choice and the Structure of the Environment,’
Psychological Review, 63, 129–138.
SCA see sustainable competitive advantage
scale
DESCRIPTION
A scheme of rank or order for purposes of measurement and analysis.
KEY INSIGHTS
There are a number of scales that can be used in marketing research
to assist with a data collection effort: a nominal scale, where data are
categorized (e.g. for gender, being either female or male, for industry
sector, being either public or private); an ordinal scale, where data can
be ordered or ranked (e.g. for firm size, being small, medium, or large);
an interval scale, where the distance or interval between numbers on a
scale is constant to allow precise comparisons of responses (e.g. consumer
satisfaction on a scale of 1 to 10, where 1 is extremely dissatisfied and 10
is extremely satisfied); and a ratio scale, where values can be compared in
terms of ratios (e.g. the prices consumers are willing to pay for several
different memory sticks differing in storage capacity). In addition, a Likert
scale is a scale of consecutive numbers that is used to enable a respondent
to specify their level of agreement to a statement. An example is when
respondents are asked to indicate their level of agreement with the fol-
lowing statement: cars should be taxed according to their fuel efficiency,
where 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree,
4=agree,5=strongly agree.
KEY WORDS Measurement, analysis
segment-of-one marketing 462
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers engaged in marketing research must choose carefully the
scales used in data collection since each scale varies in its power for
statistical analysis. While data collection using nominal scales contains
the least information and that using ratio scales contains the most, the
choice of scale ultimately depends on the marketer’s objectives, where,
for example, interval scales may be all that are needed to gain important
marketing insights.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Research
Bearden, William O., Netemeyer, Richard G., and Mobley, Mary F. (1993). Handbook
of Marketing Scales: Multi-item Measures for Marketing and Consumer Behavior Research.
Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Publications.
Anderson, David Ray, Sweeney, Dennis J., and Williams, Thomas Arthur (1984).
Statistics for Business and Economics. St Paul, Minn.: West Publishing Company.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aaker, David A. (2003). Marketing Research. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Velleman, P., and Wilkinson, L. (1993). ‘Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio
Typologies are Misleading,’ American Statistician, 47(1), 65–72.
search engine marketing see entry at Web marketing
search goods see goods
secondary data see data types
secondary demand see demand
segment-of-one marketing
DESCRIPTION
A marketing approach involving segmentation which starts with an individual
customer and builds on that profile.
KEY INSIGHTS
Segment-of-one marketing involves a ‘bottom-up’ segmentation app-
roach. In the context of micromarketing (see micromarketing), segment-
of-one marketing is an approach where solutions are tailored for individ-
ual customers through unique and individualized products or services.
KEY WORDS Individualized offerings, mass customization
IMPLICATIONS
Segment-of-one marketing entails understanding the specific needs of an
individual customer representing a target segment, one where a one-
to-one relationship is established (Pitta 1998). In the context of a ser-
vice, effective communication and efficient customer service can be very
important in its use. As part of a broader marketing strategy, segment-of-
one marketing can help track, understand, and respond to behaviors of
individual customers.
463 segmentation
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Dibb, S. (2001). ‘New Millennium, New Segments: Moving towards the Segment of
One?’ Journal of Strategic Marketing, 9(3), 193–214.
Marketing Management
Christopher, Martin, and Peck, Helen (1997). Marketing Logistics. Oxford:
Butterworth-Heinemann on behalf of the Chartered Institute of Marketing.
Forsyth, J., Gupta, S., Haldar, S., Kaul, A., and Kettle, K. (1999). ‘A Segmentation You
Can Act on,’ McKinsey Quarterly, 3, 6–15.
Marketing Research
Green, Paul E., and Krieger, Abba M. (1991). ‘Segmenting Markets with Conjoint
Analysis,’ Journal of Marketing, 55(4), October, 20–31.
Services Marketing
Dibb, S. (2001). ‘Banks, Customer Relationship Management and Barriers to the
Segment of One,’ Journal of Financial Services Marketing, 6(1), 10–23.
Marketing Modeling
Rao, C. P., and Ali, J. (2002). ‘Neural Network Model for Database Marketing in the
New Global Economy,’ Marketing Intelligence and Planning, 20(1), 35–43.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Pitta, D. A. (1998). ‘Marketing One-to-One and its Dependence on Knowledge
Discovery in Databases,’ Journal of Consumer Marketing, 15(5), 468–480.
Pine, J. B. (1993). Mass Customization. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Business School
Press.
segmentation
(also called market segmentation)
DESCRIPTION
Dividing a market into distinct groups of buyers who have relatively distinct
behaviors, needs, or other characteristics.
KEY INSIGHTS
Segmentation refers to the process of aggregating customers into groups
based on common characteristics and needs, where they are expected to
respond similarly to marketing actions. Segmentation can be beneficial
to the extent the approach provides the marketer with insights and
opportunities to offer one or more distinct market segments a particular
market offering. Offerings corresponding to particular segments may
vary in any number of ways including distinct products or services,
or other elements of the marketing mix such as price, promotion, or
distribution. There are many different ways that segmentation may be
performed including:
Age segmentation—a type of demographic segmentation, dividing a mar-
ket into groups based on consumers’ ages (e.g. under 18, 18–25, 25–45, 46
and over).
Behavioral segmentation—dividing a market into groups based on con-
sumers’ knowledge, attitudes, or product or service usage behaviors (e.g.
heavy product users, light product users).
segmentation 464
Benefit segmentation—dividing a market into groups based on the dif-
ferent gains to be derived from purchase and consumption (e.g. using a
bicycle for fitness versus transportation to and from work).
Demographic segmentation—dividing a market into groups based on
demographic variables (e.g. age, gender, income, family size, education,
occupation).
Gender segmentation—a type of demographic segmentation, dividing a
market into males and females.
Geographic segmentation—dividing a market into different geographic
units (e.g. states, cities, neighborhoods).
Income segmentation—a type of demographic segmentation, dividing a
market into groups based on consumers’ annual incomes (e.g. under
$100,000, over $100,000).
Intermarket segmentation—segmentation involving the identification of
particular groups of consumers who have similar needs or characteristics
even though consumers in such groups are located in different country
markets (e.g. babies, teenagers).
Life-cycle segmentation—a type of demographic segmentation, dividing
a market into groups based on life-cycle stages (e.g. babies, toddlers,
children, young adults, adults).
Lifestyle segmentation—a type of psychographic segmentation, dividing a
market into groups based on preferences for the way one wishes to live
one’s life (e.g. active, passive, outdoor, indoor).
Occasion segmentation—dividing a market into groups based on situa-
tional factors or contingencies driving purchase and consumption (e.g.
buying chocolate for a Valentine’s Day gift vs. everyday consumption).
Psychographic segmentation—dividing a market into different groups
based on psychological traits or characteristics (e.g. personality, values).
Sagacity segmentation—dividing a market into groups based on how dis-
cerning and discriminating consumers are in their judgments in relation
to some activity (e.g. in drinking a fine wine, those that are highly
discerning and those that are relatively undiscerning).
KEY WORDS Consumer groups, consumer characteristics
IMPLICATIONS
Segmentation forms a basis for much of marketing strategy. Studying
markets to identify their segments before choosing target groups is
a process that can be vital to the success of subsequent marketing
actions. Choosing the right product or service, price, promotional pro-
grams, and distribution channels, for example, are all areas that can
be dictated by the needs of consumer groups identified through market
segmentation.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Dickson, Peter R., and Ginter, James L. (1987). ‘Market Segmentation, Product
Differentiation, and Marketing Strategy,’ Journal of Marketing, 51(2), April, 1–10.
465 segmentation viability
Firat, A. F., and Shultz, C. J. (1997). ‘From Segmentation to Fragmentation: Markets
and Marketing Strategy in the Postmodern Era II,’ European Journal of Marketing,
31(3/4), 183–207.
Marketing Management
Dibb, Sally, and Simkin, Lyndon (1997). ‘A Program for Implementing Market
Segmentation,’ Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing, 12(1), 51–65.
Haley, Russell I. (1968). ‘Benefit Segmentation: A Decision-Oriented Research Tool,’
Journal of Marketing, 32(3), July, 30–35.
Plummer, Joseph T. (1974). ‘The Concept and Application of Life Style Segmenta-
tion,’ Journal of Marketing, 38(1), January, 33–37.
Moorthy, K. Sridhar (1984). ‘Market Segmentation, Self-Selection, and Product Line
Design,’ Marketing Science, 3(4), Autumn, 288–307.
Bucklin, Randolph E., Gupta, Sunil, and Siddarth, S. (1998). ‘Determining Seg-
mentation in Sales Response across Consumer Purchase Behaviors,’ Journal of
Marketing Research, 35(2), May, 189–197.
Marketing Research
Wind, Yoram (1978). ‘Issues and Advances in Segmentation Research,’ Journal of
Marketing Research, 15(3), August, 317–337.
Marketing Modeling
Kamakura, Wagner A., and Russell, Gary J. (1989). ‘A Probabilistic Choice Model for
Market Segmentation and Elasticity Structure,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 26(4),
November, 379–390.
Dawar, Niraj, and Parker, Philip (1994). ‘Marketing Universals: Consumers’ Use of
Brand Name, Price, Physical Appearance, and Retailer Reputation as Signals of
Product Quality,’ Journal of Marketing, 58(2), April, 81–95.
Business-to-Business Marketing
Doyle, Peter, and Saunders, John (1985). ‘Market Segmentation and Positioning in
Specialized Industrial Markets,’ Journal of Marketing, 49(2), Spring, 24–32.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dibb, Sally (1998). ‘Market Segmentation: Strategies for Success,’ Marketing Intelli-
gence and Planning, 16(7), 394–406.
Kotler, Philip, and Armstrong, Gary (2006). Principles of Marketing, 11th edn. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
segmentation viability
DESCRIPTION
The extent to which a particular form of segmentation is useful or workable
from multiple perspectives including having characteristics of sufficient acces-
sibility, substantiality, measurability, and actionability.
KEY INSIGHTS
The four major characteristics of accessibility, substantiality, measurability,
and actionability are often used to define and establish segmentation
viability. The notion of accessibility suggests that the targeted segment
must be sufficiently reachable and servable via the firm’s various market-
ing efforts. Substantiality, or significance, relates to the notion that the
targeted segment must be sufficiently large or significant to enable prof-
itability. Measurability, or identifiability, relates to the extent to which
the targeted segment’s buying power and overall size can be adequately
assessed. Actionability relates to the notion that the firm must have
selective exposure 466
necessary and sufficient marketing resources to be able to manage the
targeted segment given its characteristics including its size.
KEY WORDS Segmentation implementation, segmentation feasibility
IMPLICATIONS
Segmentation viability necessarily involves assessing accessibility, sub-
stantiality, measurability, and actionability to determine appropriateness
for inclusion as part of a firm’s marketing strategy. Tradeoffs are likely to
be necessary as well, as different segmentation approaches will inevitably
possess different levels of attractiveness relative to these four character-
istics.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Dibb, Sally (1999). ‘Criteria Guiding Segmentation Implementation: Reviewing the
Evidence,’ Journal of Strategic Marketing, 7, 107–129.
Dibb, Sally (1998), ‘Market Segmentation: Strategies for Success,’ Marketing Intelli-
gence & Planning, 16(7), 394–406.
Marketing Management
Dibb, Sally, and Simkin, Lyndon (1997). ‘A Program for Implementing Market
Segmentation,’ Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing, 12(1), 51–65.
Retail Marketing
Segal, M. N., and Giacobbe, R. W. (1994). ‘Market Segmentation and Competitive
Analysis for Supermarket Retailing,’ International Journal of Retail & Distribution
Management, 22(1), 38–48.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Wedel, M., and Kamakura, W. A. (2000). Market Segmentation: Conceptual and Method-
ological Foundations, 2nd edn. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
segmented marketing see differentiated marketing
selective distribution see distribution strategies
selective exposure
DESCRIPTION
The tendency for individuals to expose themselves to information that re-
inforces their current beliefs or attitudes.
KEY INSIGHTS
Individuals tend to seek out and pay more attention to information that
supports their current beliefs and attitudes relative to information that
is not supportive or to that which runs counter to current beliefs and
attitudes. As individuals are typically exposed to a considerable amount
of information in the course of a day, selective attention allows indi-
viduals to give relatively more time to information and messages that
reinforce their pre-existing views relative to that which does not. As
a result, selective exposure among individuals may lead to individuals
selectively watching television programs, reading newspaper editorials,
467 self-fulfilling prophecy
and attending to advertisements that tend to reinforce, as opposed to not
reinforce or contradict, their beliefs and attitudes.
KEY WORDS Information, beliefs, attitudes, reinforcement
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers developing advertising and marketing communications as well
as those involved in evaluating the effectiveness of such communication
may benefit from a greater understanding of the extent to which con-
sumers are selectively exposing themselves to certain communications
as a result of the communication’s ability to reinforce their beliefs and
attitudes. Such an understanding may help marketers gauge to a better
degree the actual and anticipated composition of consumer audiences for
marketing messages.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Advertising
Norris, C. E., Colman, A. M., and Aleixo, P. A. (2003). ‘Selective Exposure to Tele-
vision Programmes and Advertising Effectiveness,’ Applied Cognitive Psychology,
17(5), 593–606.
Silk, Alvin J., and Geiger, Frank P. (1972). ‘Advertisement Size and the Relationship
between Product Usage and Advertising Exposure,’ Journal of Marketing Research,
9(1), February, 22–26.
Consumer Behavior
Fischer, P., Jonas, E., Frey, D., and Schulz-Hardt, S. (2005). ‘Selective Exposure to
Information: The Impact of Information Limits,’ European Journal of Social Psychol-
ogy, 35(4), 469–492.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Zillmann, Dolf, and Jennings, Bryant (1985). Selective Exposure to Communication.
Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates.
selective marketing see differentiated marketing
self-actualization, Maslow’s theory of see hierarchy of needs
theory
self-fulfilling prophecy
DESCRIPTION
A prediction that becomes true as a result of the prediction having been made.
KEY INSIGHTS
Self-fulfilling prophecies involve predictions that in and of themselves are
not necessarily true but become true as a result of the prediction evoking
behaviors that lead to the prediction becoming true. For example, an
industry expert predicting a shortage of a popular new children’s toy just
before Christmas may result in such a shortage if it encourages parents
to rush out and buy the product in anticipation of a possible shortage.
KEY WORDS Prediction, forecast, self-fulfillment
self-perception theory 468
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers involved in forecasting, planning, and marketing strategy
development should be cognizant of potential self-fulfilling prophecies
as a result of actions evoked from predictions. To the extent that such
actions are unintended, anticipating possible self-fulfilling prophecies
may result in more effective planning efforts.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Hoch, Stephen J., and Deighton, John (1989). ‘Managing What Consumers Learn
from Experience,’ Journal of Marketing, 53(2), April, 1–20.
Spangenberg, E. R. (1997). ‘Increasing Health Club Attendance through Self-
Prophecy,’ Marketing Letters, 8(1), 23–32.
Consumer Behavior
Spangenberg, E. R., and Greenwald, A. G. (1999). ‘Social Influence by Requesting
Self-Prophecy,’ Journal of Consumer Psychology, 8(1), 61–90.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Merton, R. K. (1948). ‘The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy,’ Antioch Review, 8, 193–210.
Darley, J. M., and Fazio, R. H. (1980). ‘Expectancy Confirmation Processes Arising
in the Social Interaction Sequence,’ American Psychologist, 35, 867–881.
self-perception theory
DESCRIPTION
A theory that views an individual’s attitudes and opinions as being inferred
partly as a result of the individual’s observations of their own behaviors and
the circumstances surrounding the behaviors.
KEY INSIGHTS
Based on pioneering research by Bem (1965, 1967), self-perception the-
ory considers an individual’s attitude development to be a result of
self-observed behaviors, where such observations are used by the indi-
vidual to draw conclusions about what attitudes must have caused
them. An example is where a consumer is asked if she likes cappuc-
cino and she responds, ‘I must like it; I’m always drinking it.’ Self-
perception theory further asserts that the use of behavioral observa-
tion for interpreting internal states has inherent strengths over intro-
spection for the same purpose in that internal cues are often weak or
ambiguous.
KEY WORDS Behavior, self-observation, attitude formation
IMPLICATIONS
Self-perception theory provides an explanatory perspective that may be
beneficial in understanding better consumer attitudes and opinions as
well as consumer changes in attitudes and opinions. Specifically, since
the theory asserts that attitudes and opinions are inferred by consumers
from their own behaviors, marketing research on a particular topic that
draws a consumer’s attention to his or her current or past behaviors
469 selling process
may assist the consumer in expressing his or her attitudes and opinions
toward the topic.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Research
Hansen, Robert A. (1980). ‘A Self-Perception Interpretation of the Effect of Mon-
etary and Nonmonetary Incentives on Mail Survey Respondent Behavior,’ Journal
of Marketing Research, 17(1), February, 77–83.
Marketing Strategy
Allen, Chris T. (1982). ‘Self-Perception Based Strategies for Stimulating Energy
Conservation,’ Journal of Consumer Research, 8(4), March, 381–390.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bem, D. J. (1965). ‘An Experimental Analysis of Self-Persuasion,’ Journal of Experimen-
tal Social Psychology, 1, 199–218.
Bem, D. J. (1967). ‘Self-Perception: An Alternative Interpretation of Cognitive Dis-
sonance Phenomena,’ Psychological Review, 74, 183–200.
Bem, D. J. (1972). ‘Self-Perception Theory,’ in L. Berkowitz (ed.), Advances in Experi-
mental Social Psychology, 6. New York: Academic Press, 1–62.
selling concept see marketing management orientation
selling process
DESCRIPTION
A series of steps undertaken by a salesperson to sell a firm’s product or service
to a potential customer.
KEY INSIGHTS
The selling process as implemented by a salesperson is composed of
multiple steps. Common characterizations of the steps in a selling
process include: prospecting—the step of identifying qualified poten-
tial customers; preapproach—the step of preparing for a sales call by
researching the potential customer’s need and background; approach—
the step of meeting with a potential customer at a particular time
and place; presentation—the step of making a sales pitch to a poten-
tial customer, where the benefits of the offering to the potential cus-
tomer are raised; handling objections—the step of identifying, clarifying,
and overcoming a potential customer’s objections or obstacles to the
purchase of the offering; closing—the step of asking for a potential
customer’s order for the offering and getting him or her to say ‘yes’;
and follow-up—after the sale of the firm’s offering to a customer, the
step of checking with the customer about the customer’s satisfaction
with the offering as a means to building a long-term relationship with
the customer and encouraging repeat business. The selling process
is not always a straightforward and linear process, however, as the
implementation involves iterating back and forth between the different
steps.