Dacko S.G. The Advanced Dictionary of Marketing Putting Theory to Use

Подождите немного. Документ загружается.

red queen effect 440

IMPLICATIONS

Marketers should clearly consider the possible enhancing effect of adver-

tising exposures occurring close in time to a consumer’s purchase occa-

sion. Marketers may therefore beneﬁt from marketing research aimed

at relating the degree of recency to effects on purchase for a particular

product or service offering.

APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS

Advertising

Sommer, Robert, and Aitkens, Susan (1982). ‘Mental Mapping of Two Supermar-

kets,’ Journal of Consumer Research, 9(2), September, 211–215.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Reichel, W., and Wood, L. (1997). ‘Recency in Media Planning—Re-Deﬁned,’ Journal

of Advertising Research, 37(4), 66–74.

Watson, John Broadus (1930). Behaviorism, 2nd edn., Chicago: University of Chicago

Press.



recency rule see recency effect



reciprocal marketing see cooperative marketing



red queen effect

(also called the red queen hypothesis, the red queen theory, the red

queen principle, the red queen metaphor, the red queen trap, the red

queen syndrome, the red queen game, the red queen’s race, red queen

evolution, or simply the red queen)

DESCRIPTION

The effect of certain dynamics associated with a highly competitive environ-

ment on an organizational entity or strategic approach where, increasingly,

there is a need to expend high levels of exhausting effort or resources in order

for the organization or strategy to remain viable.

KEY INSIGHTS

The red queen effect originally received attention as an evolutionary

hypothesis in biology based on research by Van Valen (1973) but has

subsequently been examined in the context of a range of areas including

marketing. The term ‘red queen’ refers to the situation in the children’s

story Through the Looking Glass, and What Alice Found There by Lewis Carroll

(1871) in which the Red Queen, a life-size chess piece, had prompted

Alice to run faster and faster, saying, ‘Now, here you see, it takes all

the running you can do to keep in the same place. If you want to get

somewhere else, you must run at least twice as fast as that!’ In a biological

context—which may be aptly extended to numerous organizational and

marketing contexts—the term refers to the view that enemies of an

organism continuously track its defences and evolve to bypass them,

eventually leading to a situation where the organism must run all-out

merely to maintain a successful defense. More broadly, the term refers to

competitive dynamics where there is intense pressure or a deleterious

441 reference group

effect on the subsequent development or evolution of an entity (e.g.

organization), strategy, or marketing strategy resulting from competitive

actions.

KEY WORDS Strategy, organization, evolution, competitive dynamics, re-

sources

IMPLICATIONS

Marketers in ﬁrms encountering the red queen effect as a result

of ﬁerce or shrewd competition may ﬁnd that levels of marketing

resources required to simply cope with the competition will be at near-

hemorrhaging levels or beyond. In such situations, it is imperative for the

viability of the ﬁrm or strategy involved to devise and employ a break-

through approach or response. At the same time, marketers involved

in the development of competitive strategies should strive to recognize

and anticipate possible red queen dynamics in an effort to avoid such

situations altogether.

APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS

Marketing Strategy

Cooper, L. G. (2000). ‘Strategic Marketing Planning for Radically New Products,’

Journal of Marketing, 64(1), 1–16.

Voelpel, Sven C., Liebold, Marius, Tekie, Eden B., and Kroeg, Georg von (2005).

‘Escaping the Red Queen Effect in Competitive Strategy: Sense-Testing Business

Models,’ European Management Journal, 23(1), 37–49.

Lewin, A. Y., and Volberda, H. W. (1999). ‘Prolegomena on Coevolution: A Frame-

work for Research on Strategy and New Organizational Forms,’ Organization

Science, 10(5), 519–534.

Baye, Michael R., and Morgan, John (2003). ‘Red Queen Pricing Effects in E-

Retail Markets,’ Social Science Research Network, October, Available at SSRN:

http://ssrn.com/abstract=655448.

Kauffman, S. (1995). ‘Escaping the Red Queen Effect,’ McKinsey Quarterly, 1, 118–129.

Arnott, D. C. (2004). ‘The Red Queen: On Positioning in Dynamic Markets,’ in K.

Sausen and S. Dibb (eds.), Proceedings of the Academy of Marketing SIG on Market

Segmentation. St Gallen: Thexis, 35–39.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Van Valen, L. (1973). ‘A New Evolutionary Law,’ Evolutionary Theory, 1, 1–30.

Ridley, Matt (2003). The Red Queen. New York: HarperCollins.

Carroll, Lewis (1871) (reprinted 1960). ‘The Annotated Alice: Alice’s Adventures in

Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass,’ illustrated by J. Tenniel, Through

the Looking-Glass and What Alice Found There, with an Introduction and Notes by M.

Gardner, The New American Library, New York, 345.



reference group

DESCRIPTION

The people that an individual uses as a point of reference in determining his or

her own judgments, beliefs, preferences, and behaviors.

KEY INSIGHTS

Considerable research based in the social sciences suggests that reference

groups both large and small can have signiﬁcant inﬂuences on a range of

individual judgments, beliefs, attitudes, preferences, and behaviors. In

reference price 442

the context of many product or brand purchase decisions where individ-

uals look to one or more others for guidance on such purchase decisions,

identifying the nature and extent of reference group inﬂuences is often

a vital consideration among marketers. Depending on the purchase sit-

uation, a sports group, volunteer group, church group, political group,

a group of student peers, or one or more of many other groups may

ultimately play a signiﬁcant role in inﬂuencing an individual’s attitudes

and preferences, regardless of whether or not one is a member of such

groups and whether or not one even aspires to become a member.

KEY WORDS Groups, inﬂuence, behavior, judgment, attitudes, beliefs, pre-

ference

IMPLICATIONS

While individuals may vary on the extent that they are susceptible to

reference group inﬂuences, marketers must actively seek to understand

consumer behaviors in relation to their offerings in order to leverage

possible reference group inﬂuences. Tailoring marketing messages and

media to either reach such groups or to acknowledge such positive or

negative inﬂuences by others may enhance the effectiveness of market-

ing communications aimed at inﬂuencing consumer purchase decision

making.

APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS

Consumer Behavior

Bearden, William, and Etzel, O. Michael J. (1982). ‘Reference Group Inﬂuence on

Product and Brand Purchase Decisions,’ Journal of Consumer Research, 9(2), Septem-

ber, 183–194.

Park, C. Whan, and Lessig, V. Parker (1977). ‘Students and Housewives: Differences

in Susceptibility to Reference Group Inﬂuence,’ Journal of Consumer Research, 4(2),

September, 102–110.

Childers, Terry L., and Rao, Akshay R. (1992). ‘The Inﬂuence of Familial and Peer-

Based Reference Groups on Consumer Decisions,’ Journal of Consumer Research,

19(2), September, 198–211.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Merton, Robert K., and Rossi, Alice Kitt (1949). ‘Contributions to the Theory of

Reference Group Behavior,’ in Robert K. Merton (ed.), Social Theory and Social

Structure. New York: The Free Press, 225–275.



reference price

DESCRIPTION

An internal standard against which observed prices are compared.

KEY INSIGHTS

Reference prices are psychological points of reference used by consumers

that have been empirically demonstrated to be inﬂuential in brand

choice. The reference price formation process typically involves reliance

on past prices and, as such, may vary in accuracy as a result of limitations

in consumers’ ability to recall prices paid, but is nevertheless an inﬂuen-

tial process in its effect on consumer judgments of price acceptability.

443 regression towards the mean

KEY WORDS Psychological reference point, price comparison

IMPLICATIONS

Marketers should be concerned about reference prices held by consumers

for particular offerings out of consideration for reference price effects

on consumer evaluations of the acceptability and desirability of future

prices. For example, consistent price promotions are found to lower

consumers’ reference prices and, as a result, consumers tend to see non-

promotion prices much more as price increases than prices which are

returning to normal.

APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS

Marketing Management

Winer, Russell S. (1986). ‘A Reference Price Model of Brand Choice for Fre-

quently Purchased Products,’ Journal of Consumer Research , 13(2), September, 250–

256.

Rajendran, K. N., and Tellis, Gerard J. (1994).‘Contextual and Temporal Compo-

nents of Reference Price,’ Journal of Marketing, 58(1), January, 22–34.

Lattin, James M., and Bucklin, Randolph E. (1989). ‘Reference Effects of Price and

Promotion on Brand Choice Behavior,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 26(3), August,

299–310.

Greenleaf, Eric A. (1995). ‘The Impact of Reference Price Effects on the Proﬁtability

of Price Promotions,’ Marketing Science, 14(1), 82–104.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kalyanaram, Gurumurthy, and Winer, Russell S. (1995). ‘Empirical Generalizations

from Reference Price Research,’ Marketing Science, 14(3), Part 2 of 2: Special Issue

on Empirical Generalizations in Marketing, G161–G169.



referral-based marketing see afﬁliate marketing



regression towards the mean

DESCRIPTION

A statistical phenomenon or artifact where there is a tendency for values of

variables probabilistically predicted and with random error to be closer to their

means than predicted.

KEY INSIGHTS

The regression towards the mean phenomenon, where there is a ten-

dency in related measurements for the expected value of a subsequent

measurement to be closer to the mean than the observed value of an ini-

tial measurement, occurs when there is asymmetric or non-random sam-

pling from a population and measures that are imperfectly correlated.

Often considered counter-intuitive, the regression towards the mean phe-

nomenon is important in that a researcher may mistakenly interpret a

measurement as occurring as a result of a treatment or stimulus when,

in fact, it is due to chance.

KEY WORDS Measurement, response, prediction

reinforcement 444

IMPLICATIONS

The regression towards the mean phenomenon has important implica-

tions for marketing researchers in establishing expectations about future

measures in relation to initial measures. For example, relative to a recog-

nized average response rate for a mail survey, an extremely high response

rate for a subsequent survey will not necessarily be followed by another

high response rate for yet another survey but rather a response rate that

is closer to the mean.

APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS

Marketing Strategy

Day, George S., and Wensley, Robin (1988). ‘Assessing Advantage: A Framework for

Diagnosing Competitive Superiority,’ Journal of Marketing, 52(2), April, 1–20.

Marketing Research

Lee, Eunkyu, Hu, Michael Y., and Toh, Rex S. (2000). ‘Are Consumer Survey Results

Distorted? Systematic Impact of Behavioral Frequency and Duration on Survey

Response Errors,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 37(1), February, 125–133.

Consumer Behavior

Raj, S. P. (1982). ‘The Effects of Advertising on High and Low Loyalty Consumer

Segments,’ Journal of Consumer Research, 9(1), June, 77–89.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Reynolds, William H. (1966). ‘Statistical Regression in Before-and-After Paired Com-

parison Studies,’ Journal of Advertising Research, 6(1), 18–20.



reiﬁcation see fallacy of misplaced concreteness



Reilly’s law see retail gravitation, law of



reinforcement

DESCRIPTION

Anything accompanying a behavior that leads to an increase in the likelihood

that the behavior will occur again or with increased frequency.

KEY INSIGHTS

Pioneering research by Thorndike (1911) demonstrated that a stimulus,

either in the form of a reward or the removal of something unpleas-

ant, presented to a subject immediately following a desired response

increased the probability that the response will occur again. Subsequent

research on reinforcement recognizes the value and role of a general

reinforcement approach for systematically encouraging and obtaining

the desired behaviors of individuals under a range of conditions.

KEY WORDS Behavior, stimulus, rewards

IMPLICATIONS

A greater understanding and appreciation of the concepts and princi-

ples associated with a reinforcement approach to learning may beneﬁt

marketers who are concerned with developing effective and efﬁcient

approaches that reinforce particular consumer behaviors. Encouraging

445 relationship marketing

regular purchase or frequent service usage through formal reward pro-

grams that give ﬁnancial incentives to consumers who demonstrate

desired purchase behaviors is but one way that reinforcement may poten-

tially be put to effective use by marketers. Product and service usage ex-

periences that provide customers with an immediate sense of satisfaction

may reinforce repeat purchase or service use as well.

APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS

Marketing Research

Kahn, Barbara E., Kalwani, Manohar U., and Morrison, Donald G. (1986). ‘Measur-

ing Variety-Seeking and Reinforcement Behaviors Using Panel Data,’ Journal of

Marketing Research, 23(2), May, 89–100.

Kahn, Barbara E., and Raju, Jagmohan S. (1991). ‘Effects of Price Promotions on

Variety-Seeking and Reinforcement Behavior,’ Marketing Science, 10(4), Autumn,

316–337.

Carey, J. Ronald, Clicque, Steven H., Leighton, Barbara A., and Milton, Frank

(1976). ‘A Test of Positive Reinforcement of Customers,’ Journal of Marketing, 40(4),

October, 98–100.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Thorndike, Edward L. (1911). Animal Intelligence. New York: Macmillan.



rejection-then-retreat technique see door-in-the-face technique



related diversiﬁcation see product-market investment strategies



relationship marketing

(also called customer relationship marketing)

DESCRIPTION

Marketing characterized by an emphasis on building long-term customer

relationships with selected customers.

KEY INSIGHTS

Relationship marketing adopts the view that it can be in the best interest

of a ﬁrm and selected customers of the ﬁrm to maintain long-term

mutual relationships as opposed to the ﬁrm and such customers simply

engaging in a series of individual commercial transactions. While not

appropriate for all product markets, the relationship marketing’s empha-

sis on customer retention may have cost advantages to a ﬁrm when com-

pared to the potentially higher costs associated with attracting new cus-

tomers to the ﬁrm. When customer acquisition costs are high relative to

costs associated with their retention, customer relationship management

becomes increasingly important (see customer relationship manage-

ment). Nevertheless, characteristics of the ﬁrm’s offerings, the market,

and the customer may ultimately determine how beneﬁcial it may be. For

example, when the value of products purchased is relatively high, when

there are relatively high switching costs associated with a product, and

when customers’ level of involvement with the ﬁrm’s products and their

production is relatively high, a relationship marketing approach may be

relationship marketing 446

more beneﬁcial than transactional marketing than when the converse

is true. As an example, a specialty car manufacturer in the UK would

clearly beneﬁt from relationship marketing with current and potential

customers when one considers that customers must wait patiently for up

to ﬁve years to have their cars made from the time they place their order.

At the same time, relationship marketing recognizes that a ﬁrm need

not seek to establish long-term relationships with all of its customers,

as not only do some customers prefer to avoid such relationships, but

other customers, depending on their wants, needs, purchase histories,

and expected future purchases, may not provide the ﬁrm with sufﬁcient

value as to warrant the effort.

KEY WORDS Customer retention, long-term relationships

IMPLICATIONS

A better understanding of the relationship marketing approach, as

expressed in the considerable amount of marketing research devoted to

the study of its effective use, can do much to assist a marketer with iden-

tifying, developing, and implementing strategies, methods, techniques,

and tactics that help the marketer’s ﬁrm to identify, create, and retain

proﬁtable customers. Given that the offerings of many ﬁrms are the sub-

ject of ongoing, periodic desire by their customers, it behooves marketers

to look regularly for ways that relationship marketing approaches can be

put to effective use.

APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS

Marketing Strategy

Foss, B., and Stone, M. (2001). Successful Customer Relationship Marketing: New Thinking,

New Strategies, New Tools for Getting Closer to your Customers. London: Kogan Page.

Gronroos, C. (1996). ‘Relationship Marketing: Strategic and Tactical Implications,’

Management Decision, 34/3, 5–14.

Zineldin, M. (2000). ‘Beyond Relationship Marketing: Technologicalship Market-

ing,’ Marketing Intelligence and Planning, 18(1), 9–23.

Marketing Management

Gummesson, E. (1994). ‘Making Relationship Marketing Operational,’ International

Journal of Service Industry Management, 5, 5–20.

Services Marketing

Berry, L. (1995). ‘Relationship Marketing of Services: Growing Interest, Emerging

Perspectives,’ Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 23, 236–245.

Tax, S. S., Brown, S. W., and Chandrashekaran, M. (1998). ‘Customer Evaluations of

Service Complaint Experiences: Implication for Relationship Marketing,’ Journal

of Marketing, 62(2), 60–76.

Business-to-Business Marketing

Nevin, J. R. (1995). ‘Relationship Marketing and Distribution Channels: Exploring

Fundamental Issues,’ Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 23, Fall, 327–334.

Shani, D., and Chalasani, S. (1993). ‘Exploiting Niches Using Relationship Market-

ing,’ Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing, 8(4), 58.

Online Marketing

Gilbert, David C., Powell-Perry, Jan, and Widijoso, Sianandar (1999). ‘Approaches

by Hotels to the Use of the Internet as a Relationship Marketing Tool,’ Journal of

Marketing Practice: Applied Marketing Science, 5(1), February, 21–38.

447 reliability

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Stone, M., Woodcock, N., and Machtynger, L. (2000). Customer Relationship Marketing.

London: Kogan Page.

Parvatiyar, A., and Sheth, J. N. (2000). ‘The Domain and Conceptual Foundations

of Relationship Marketing,’ in J. N. Sheth and A. Parvatiyar (eds.), Handbook of

Relationship Marketing. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications.

Morris, M. H., Brunyee J., and Page, M. (1998). ‘Relationship Marketing in Practice—

When is it Appropriate?’ Industrial Marketing Management, 27(4), July, 359–371.



reliability

DESCRIPTION

The extent to which a measurement approach is able to obtain consistent,

stable, and uniform measurements on repeated occasions under the same

measurement conditions.

KEY INSIGHTS

Research in marketing is often concerned with reliable measurement.

If, for example, a survey is developed to measure consumers’ interest in

using the internet for luxury goods purchases, then each time the survey

is administered, the results should be approximately the same. While it

is impossible to calculate reliability exactly, however, it can be estimated

in different ways.

KEY WORDS Accuracy, consistency, repeatability

IMPLICATIONS

Marketers involved in marketing research should take great care to

develop measurement methods that are sufﬁciently reliable to ensure

that results are useful and that the research is able to provide sufﬁcient

insight given its cost, time, and effort. A better understanding of the

different ways that reliability can be estimated may do much to assist

the marketer with effective research designs. In addition, marketers

making use of marketing research should be sure to understand to

what extent the measurement methods employed are reliable if such

ﬁndings are to be used as inputs to strategically important marketing

decisions.

APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS

Marketing Research

Perreault, William D., Jr., and Leigh, Laurence E. (1989). ‘Reliability of Nominal

Data Based on Qualitative Judgments,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 26(2), May,

135–148.

Churchill, Gilbert A., Jr., and Peter, J. Paul (1984). ‘Research Design Effects on the

Reliability of Rating Scales: A Meta-analysis,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 21(4),

November, 360–375.

Kolbe, Richard H., and Burnett, Melissa S. (1991). ‘Content-Analysis Research: An

Examination of Applications with Directives for Improving Research Reliability

and Objectivity,’ Journal of Consumer Research, 18(2), September, 243–250.

Ruekert, Robert W., and Churchill, Gilbert A., Jr. (1984). ‘Reliability and Validity

of Alternative Measures of Channel Member Satisfaction,’ Journal of Marketing

Research, 21(2), May, 226–233.

remarketing 448

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Peter, J. Paul (1979). ‘Reliability: A Review of Psychometric Basics and Recent

Marketing Practices,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 16(1), February, 6–17.

Churchill, Gilbert A., Jr. (1979). ‘A Paradigm for Developing Better Mea-

sures of Marketing Constructs,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 16(1), February,

64–73.



remarketing

DESCRIPTION

Marketing efforts by an organization to market an offering again after it has

been marketed, unsuccessfully or successfully, on an earlier occasion.

KEY INSIGHTS

The nature of some ﬁrm’s offerings is such that the ﬁrm may have a

need to remarket them after an earlier marketing effort which may or

may not have been successful. In the case of ﬁrms offering tangible

leased property, for example, the ﬁrm would have a need to remarket

the property when a lessee turns in the property at the end of the lease

or if the lessor defaulted on the lease. Yet, the remarketing efforts of a

ﬁrm may not necessarily be concerned with tangible goods, as it may

involve a service or even an idea. In the instance where earlier marketing

efforts were successful, it is, of course, easier to remarket an offering

as there is a success story to draw upon. On the other hand, when an

earlier marketing effort is unsuccessful, the ﬁrm must often ﬁnd a new,

alternative way of marketing its offering.

KEY WORDS Subsequent marketing strategies

IMPLICATIONS

In the case of offerings that are remarketed as a result of having seen

previous use, remarketing may, of course, use any number of marketing

approaches (e.g. using auctions for automobile remarketing) to reach new

customer markets. However, in the case of offerings that are remarketed

out of a lack of success on an earlier occasion, marketers must usually

adopt new marketing strategies that emphasize different strategic posi-

tions and value propositions. For example, when the Coca-Cola Company

introduced new Coke and simultaneously withdrew its original Coke in

1985, many customers were extremely dissatisﬁed with the new Coke

and stopped buying it. In response to the crisis, the company reintro-

duced the original Coke, remarketing it, very successfully, as ‘Coke Clas-

sic.’

APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS

Marketing Strategy

Beeton, S., and Pinge, I. (2003). ‘Casting the Holiday Dice: Demarketing Gambling

to Encourage Local Tourism,’ Current Issues in Tourism, 6(4), 309–322.

Place Marketing

Chan, W. F. (2005). ‘Planning Birmingham as a Cosmopolitan City: Recovering the

Depths of its Diversity?’ In Cosmopolitan Urbanism. London: Routledge.

449 repetition effect

Services Marketing

MacStravic, S. (1995). ‘Remarketing, Yes, Remarketing Health Care,’ Journal of Health

Care Marketing, 15(4), 57–59.

Business-to-Business Marketing

Chesler, L. (1991). ‘Contractual Issues in the Remarketing of Systems,’ Computer/Law

Journal, 11, 247–264.

McConocha, Diane M., and Speh, Thomas W. (1991). ‘Remarketing: Commercializa-

tion of Remanufacturing Technology,’ Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing,

6(1–2), 23–36.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Blackwell, R. D. (1994). ‘Remarketing of Autos: The Role of Auctions in the Auto

Distribution Revolution,’ Journal of Consumer Marketing, 11(2), 4–17.



repetition effect

DESCRIPTION

Any effect or response resulting from repetition in exposure to a stimulus.

KEY INSIGHTS

Repetition in communication, particularly advertising, is a recognized

approach by marketers seeking the effect of increased recall or recogni-

tion of a stimulus (e.g. product name, brand name, or message). While

any effect of repetition will vary with the amount and timing associ-

ated with the process of exposing consumers to a message on multiple

occasions, the way that consumers process information from the mes-

sage can also be inﬂuential in establishing the degree of a repetition

effect.

KEY WORDS Message repetition, stimulus, response

IMPLICATIONS

Marketers seeking to inﬂuence consumer behavior through message rep-

etition may beneﬁt from understanding not only how such an approach

may encourage desired behaviors but also how factors related to message

repetition such as ease of message processing may have important mod-

erating inﬂuences on repetition effects as well.

APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS

Advertising

Malaviya, P., Meyers-Levy, J., and Sternthal, B. (1999). ‘Ad Repetition in a Cluttered

Environment: The Inﬂuence of Type of Processing,’ Psychology and Marketing,

16(2), 99–118.

Rethans, Arno J., Swasy, John L., and Marks, Lawrence J. (1986). ‘Effects of Tele-

vision Commercial Repetition, Receiver Knowledge, and Commercial Length: A

Test of the Two-Factor Model,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 23(1), February, 50–61.

Malaviya, Prashant (2000). ‘Ad Repetition Effects: The Inﬂuence of Amount and

Type of Elaboration,’ INSEAD Working Paper No. 2000/17/MKT.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anand, Punam, and Sternthal, Brian (1990). ‘Ease of Message Processing as a

Moderator of Repetition Effects in Advertising,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 27(3),

August, 345–353.