Dacko S.G. The Advanced Dictionary of Marketing Putting Theory to Use
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selling process 470
KEY WORDS Sales, sales force
IMPLICATIONS
The success of a firm’s personal selling efforts often relies on effective
salespeople. As such, the development and training of salespeople can be
a vital part of the firm’s marketing planning. Issues that should be given
consideration by marketers involved in the selling process include sales-
persons’ knowledge of the product or service they are selling, understand-
ing the firm’s potential customers prior to approaching them, and identi-
fying various strategies to change potential customers’ attitudes favorably
towards the product or service. Managing salespeople also requires their
motivation, which has clear implications for sales managers in terms of
selecting, training, and compensating sales personnel.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Crosby, Lawrence A., and Stephens, Nancy (1987). ‘Effects of Relationship Market-
ing on Satisfaction, Retention, and Prices in the Life Insurance Industry,’ Journal
of Marketing Research, 24(4), November, 404–411.
Marketing Management
Piercy, N. F., Cravens, D. W., and Morgan, N. A. (1999). ‘Relationships between
Sales Management Control, Territory Design, Salesforce Performance and Sales
Organization Effectiveness,’ British Journal of Management, 10(2), 95–112.
Weitz, Barton A., Sujan, Harish, and Sujan, Mita (1986). ‘Knowledge, Motivation,
and Adaptive Behavior: A Framework for Improving Selling Effectiveness,’ Jour-
nal of Marketing, 50(4), October, 174–191.
Netemeyer, Richard G., Boles, James S., McKee, Daryl O., and McMurrian, Robert
(1997). ‘An Investigation into the Antecedents of Organizational Citizenship
Behaviors in a Personal Selling Context,’ Journal of Marketing, 61(3), 85–98.
Business-to-Business Marketing
Wotruba, T. R. (1996). ‘The Transformation of Industrial Selling: Causes and Conse-
quences,’ Industrial Marketing Management, 25(5), 327–338.
Leigh, Thomas W., and Rethans, Arno J. (1984). ‘A Script-Theoretic Analysis of
Industrial Purchasing Behavior,’ Journal of Marketing, 48(4), Autumn, 22–32.
Marketing Research
Spiro, Rosann L., and Weitz, Barton A. (1990). ‘Adaptive Selling: Conceptualization,
Measurement, and Nomological Validity,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 27(1), Feb-
ruary, 61–69.
International Marketing
Hart, Susan J., Webb, John R., and Jones, Marian V. (1994). ‘Export Marketing
Research and the Effect of Export Experience in Industrial SMEs,’ International
Marketing Review, 11(6), December, 4–22.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Weitz B. A., and Bradford, K. D. (1999). ‘Personal Selling and Sales Management:
A Relationship Marketing Perspective,’ Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,
27(2), 241–254.
Kotler, Philip, and Armstrong, Gary (2006). Principles of Marketing, 11th edn. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
sense-of-mission marketing see enlightened marketing
sequence bias see bias
471 serial position effect
serial position effect
(also called edge effect or end effect)
DESCRIPTION
A tendency in serial learning for individuals to recall better items at the
beginning and end of the series than items in the middle of the series.
KEY INSIGHTS
The serial position effect is characterized by a U-shaped curve in a plot
of item recall versus serial position, where item recall is highest for
beginning and end items and lowest for middle items. In essence, the
effect can be considered to be a combination of the primacy effect and
recency effect (see primacy effect; recency effect) and potentially the
von Restorff effect (see von Restorff effect). A possible explanation for
the effect is that items at the beginning of a series are more easily taken
into long-term memory relative to other items and items at the end of the
series are more easily kept in short-term memory relative to other items,
and items in the middle of the series, as a result of their intermediate
serial position, are not kept or taken into either short- or long-term
memory as effectively.
KEY WORDS Recall, serial position
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers concerned with maximizing the likelihood that information
will be remembered by consumers exposed to serial information, as
when a series of commercials are presented to consumers, can benefit
from awareness of the serial position effect phenomenon by placing
information to be remembered either at the beginning or end of a series
and avoiding the middle of a series.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Advertising
Terry, W. S. (2005). ‘Serial Position Effects in Recall of Television Commercials,’
Journal of General Psychology, 132(2), 151–163.
Zhao, X. (1997). ‘Clutter and Serial Order Redefined and Retested,’ Journal of Adver-
tising Research, 37(5), 57–74.
Online Marketing
Murphy, J., Hofacker, C., and Mizerski, R. (2006). ‘Primacy and Recency Effects
on Clicking Behavior,’ Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 11(2), article 7.
http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol11/issue2/murphy.html. Accessed: 1 March 2007.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Frensch, P. A. (1994). ‘Composition during Serial Learning: A Serial Position Effect,’
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20(2), 423–443.
Murdock, B. B., Jr. (1962). ‘The Serial Position Effect in Free Recall,’ Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 64, 482–488.
Glanzer, M., and Cunitz, A. R. (1966). ‘Two Storage Mechanisms in Free Recall,’
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 5, 351–360.
service, laws of 472
service, laws of
DESCRIPTION
A set of three assertions relating to services marketing comprising
(1) satisfaction equals perception minus expectation, (2) first impressions are
the most important, and (3) a service-oriented attitude alone will not achieve
good service.
KEY INSIGHTS
Developed and asserted by Davidoff (1994), the three laws of service are
intended to summarize key marketing considerations in the provision
of services. The three laws are considered to be most applicable in the
context of hospitality and tourism in particular.
KEY WORDS Service offerings
IMPLICATIONS
According to Davidoff (1994), implications of the three laws of service
are that, in a firm’s provision of service, basic customer expectations will
include service accessibility, courtesy, personal attention, empathy, job
knowledge, consistency, and teamwork. In addition, marketers should
recognize that first impressions in service can make lasting impressions
and that service staff attitudes must be backed up with knowledge and
training.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Services Marketing
Lepiller, Marlyse (2003). ‘Language Skills of Tourist Professionals in Normandy.’
Dissertation, MA in European Tourism Management, Bournemouth University.
O’Neill, M. A., Williams, P., MacCarthy, M., and Groves, R. (2000). ‘Diving into
Service Quality: The Dive Tour Operator Perspective,’ Managing Service Quality,
10(3), 131–140.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Davidoff, D. M. (1994). Contact: Customer Service in the Hospitality and Tourism Industry.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
service characteristics
DESCRIPTION
Factors associated with service offerings which are influential to their effective
marketing.
KEY INSIGHTS
Service offerings can be characterized in any number of ways, yet it is also
recognized that there are several characteristics that make services rela-
tively unique in comparison to non-service offerings. Specifically, services
can be said to involve: inseparability—where services are usually produced
and consumed at the same time and place (e.g. in the presence of the
customer); intangibility—where services do not have physical substance in
that they cannot be touched; perishability—where unused service capacity
cannot be stored for future use or sale; and variability—where the quality
of a service can vary by many factors, including who provides it, where
it is provided, when it is provided, and how it is provided. This latter
473 services marketing
factor arises because service businesses rely on people for delivering
services.
KEY WORDS Service factors
IMPLICATIONS
The characteristics of services should be carefully understood in devel-
oping competitive service strategies and marketing plans. Customer ser-
vice and continuous assessment of customer satisfaction are important
aspects in the provision of services. Unlike products, services do not
have tangible qualities that enable physical observation and evaluation
by prospective customers, so service firms have to provide marketing
communications about the firm’s services through an array of sources.
Researching demand and supply and timing of shifting service demand
levels is important to develop pricing and promotional strategies to stim-
ulate demand. To deal with variability of services, firms need to establish
standard procedures and implement training practices among personnel
in order to ensure consistent service delivery.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Lovelock, Christopher H. (1983). ‘Classifying Services to Gain Strategic Marketing
Insights,’ Journal of Marketing, (47)3, Summer, 9–20.
Lievens, A., and Moenaert, R. K. (2000). ‘Communication Flows during Financial
Service Innovation,’ European Journal of Marketing, 34(9–10), October, 1078–1110.
Marketing Management
Webster, Cynthia (1995). ‘Marketing Culture and Marketing Effectiveness in Ser-
vice Firms,’ Journal of Services Marketing, 9(2), May, 6–21.
Services Marketing
Blankson, Charles, and Kalafatis, Stavros P. (1999). ‘Issues and Challenges in the
Positioning of Service Brands: A Review,’ Journal of Product & Brand Management,
8(2), April, 106–118.
Pires, Guilherme, and Stanton, John (2000). ‘Marketing Services to Ethnic Con-
sumers in Culturally Diverse Markets: Issues and Implications,’ Journal of Services
Marketing, 14(7), December, 607–618.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
de Chernatony, Leslie, and Segal-Horn, Susan (2001). ‘Building on Services’ Charac-
teristics to Develop Successful Services Brands,’ Journal of Marketing Management,
17, 645–669.
Clemes, Michael, Mollenkopf, Diane, and Burn, Darryl (2000). ‘An Investigation of
Marketing Problems across Service Typologies,’ Journal of Services Marketing, 14(7),
573–594.
services marketing
DESCRIPTION
Marketing involving the provision of intangible offerings to consumers.
KEY INSIGHTS
A services marketing approach relies on the notion that differences
among services are as important as differences between products and
services. Marketing a service-base business differs from marketing a
product-base service in that what the customer buys is intangible and
set theory 474
cannot be returned, it is harder to compare the quality of similar ser-
vices, production and consumption are inseparable, and the consumer
purchase is perishable. In addition, that which is offered by a firm may
also be characterized by more variability. As such, the marketing of
services often involves finding means to make a service more tangible
and providing evidence and indicators of service quality to consumers.
KEY WORDS Intangible offerings
IMPLICATIONS
In comparison to product marketing (see product marketing ), services
marketing typically requires far more marketing attention to the mar-
keting mix elements of people, process, and physical evidence (see mar-
keting mix). As such, the personnel providing the services, the physical
environment in which a service is offered, and the service process itself
must all be strategically as well as tactically managed by the service
marketer.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Zeithaml, Valarie A., Parasuraman, A., and Berry, Leonard L. (1985). ‘Problems and
Strategies in Services Marketing,’ Journal of Marketing, 49(2), Spring, 33–46.
Bharadwaj, Sundar G. P., Varadarajan, Rajan, and Fahy, John (1993). ‘Sustainable
Competitive Advantage in Service Industries: A Conceptual Model and Research
Propositions,’ Journal of Marketing, 57(4), October, 83–99.
Berry, Leonard L. (1995). ‘Relationship Marketing of Services: Growing Interest,
Emerging Perspectives,’ Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 23(4), 236–245.
Marketing Management
Lovelock, Christopher H. (1992). Managing Services: Marketing, Operations, and Human
Resources. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Online Marketing
Peterson, Robert A., Balasubramanian, Sridhar, and Bronnenberg, Bart J. (1997).
‘Exploring the Implications of the Internet for Consumer Marketing,’ Journal of
the Academy of Marketing Science, 25(4), 329–346.
Consumer Behavior
Murray, Keith B. (1991). ‘A Test of Services Marketing Theory: Consumer Informa-
tion Acquisition Activities,’ Journal of Marketing, 55(1), January, 10–25.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Zeithaml, Valarie A., and Bitner, Mary Jo (1996). Services Marketing. New York:
McGraw Hill.
Berry, L. L. (1980). ‘Services Marketing is Different,’ Business Week, 30, May–June,
24–29.
set theory
DESCRIPTION
Mathematical theory or theories for characterizing and examining sets or
collections of abstract objects.
KEY INSIGHTS
In broad terms, set theory constitutes a major branch of mathematics
involving the study of sets or collections of abstract objects. Key concepts
475 share of voice
of set theory include sets (collections of objects) and membership (ele-
ments contained within a set), with the theory providing a rich language
for analyzing and evaluating both. While there are numerous mathemat-
ical approaches within the domain of set theory—so many that their
descriptions and insights are best covered in textbooks—it should be
noted that there are also alternatives to standard set theory approaches,
such as fuzzy set theory. (See fuzzy set theory.)
KEY WORDS Sets, objects
IMPLICATIONS
Set theory provides a means to mathematically describe and characterize
sets in marketing models in numerous areas of marketing. Complex
marketing research studies in particular may draw upon set theory in
order to facilitate effective examinations of data associated with specific
marketing phenomena.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Research
Brown, Robert G. (1973). ‘A Model for Measuring the Influence of Promotion on
Inventory and Consumer Demand,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 10(4), November,
380–389.
Dupin, D. (2000). ‘Direct Response Multi-list Market Testing,’ Interactive Marketing,
2(2), 120–128.
Salzberger, Thomas, and Sinkovics, Rudolf R. (2006). ‘Reconsidering the Problem of
Data Equivalence in International Marketing Research: Contrasting Approaches
Based on CFA and the Rasch Model for Measurement,’ International Marketing
Review, 23(4), 390–417.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hrbacek, K., and Jech, T. J. (1999). Introduction to Set Theory. New York: Marcel
Dekker, Inc.
seven Ps see marketing mix
share of voice
DESCRIPTION
The percentage of a brand’s advertising relative to the overall advertising
weight of the associated product category in a market over a given period.
KEY INSIGHTS
Also known as SOV, share of voice reflects the advertising expenditure of
a firm’s brand expressed as a weight in the total competitive spending
in the market for the category. It is usually calculated as a ratio of the
brand’s annual advertising expenditures to those of the entire industry
(including all other brands).
KEY WORD Advertising
IMPLICATIONS
SOV can be a potentially important indicator to a firm as it may be
influential to market share, in addition to brand differentiation (Jones
shared-cost effect 476
1990). As it results from advertising expenditures, it may also influence
the relative price of the product or service.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Chaudhuri, Arjun, and Holbrook, Morris B. (2001). ‘The Chain of Effects from Brand
Trust and Brand Affect to Brand Performance: The Role of Brand Loyalty,’ Journal
of Marketing, 65(2), April, 81–93.
Kent, Robert J., and Allen, Chris T. (1994). ‘Competitive Interference Effects in
Consumer Memory for Advertising: The Role of Brand Familiarity,’ Journal of
Marketing, 58(3), July, 97–105.
Marketing Management
Pedrick, James H., and Zufryden, Fred S. (1991). ‘Evaluating the Impact of Advertis-
ing Media Plans: A Model of Consumer Purchase Dynamics Using Single-Source
Data,’ Marketing Science, 10(2), Spring, 111–130.
Marketing Research
Nevett, Terence (1991). ‘Historical Investigation and the Practice of Marketing,’
Journal of Marketing, 55(3), July, 13–23.
Advertising
Pollay, Richard W., Siddarth, S., Siegel, Michael, Haddix, Anne, Merritt, Robert
K., Giovino, Gary A., and Eriksen, Michael P. (1990). ‘The Last Straw? Cigarette
Advertising and Realized Market Shares among Youths and Adults, 1979–1993,’
Journal of Marketing, 60(2), April, 1–16.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Jones, John P. (1990), ‘Ad Spending: Maintaining Market Share,’ Harvard Business
Review, 68, January–February, 38–48.
shared-cost effect
DESCRIPTION
In market situations where the customer is not the payer but rather some
other party is the payer, the resultant effect where price sensitivity is reduced.
KEY INSIGHTS
The observation of the shared-cost effect in a range of market conditions
suggests that, in determining price sensitivity, it is important to know
who the payer of a product or service is. When the individual choosing a
product or service is not the payer, price sensitivity is lower than when
the individual is both the chooser and the payer. In instances where the
individual is not the payer, the payer may be another individual, or it may
be an organization that may or may not be employing the individual.
KEY WORDS Price sensitivity
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers seeking to understand price sensitivity among consumers or
buyers should clearly understand whether or not such individuals are
also the actual payers. Such knowledge can be vital for the development
and implementation of optimal pricing strategies and tactics.
477 shareholder value analysis
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Research
Gonul, F. F., Carter, F., Petrova, E., and Srinivasan, K. (2001). ‘Promotion of Prescrip-
tion Drugs and its Impact on Physicians’ Choice Behavior,’ Journal of Marketing,
65(3), 79–90.
Kashyap, Rajiv, and Bojanic, David C. (2000). ‘A Structural Analysis of Value, Qual-
ity, and Price Perceptions of Business and Leisure Travelers,’ Journal of Travel
Research, 39(1), 45–51.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Nagle, T. T., and Holden, R. K. (1995). The Strategy and Tactics of Pricing: A Guide to
Profitable Decision Making, 2nd edn. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
shareholder value analysis
DESCRIPTION
An analysis method used in marketing-related value-based management
to assess the firm’s value to investors, taking into account the sources of
value creation and the time horizon over which the firm enjoys competitive
advantages over its rivals.
KEY INSIGHTS
Also known as SVA, shareholder value analysis values the company and
its strategies based on cash generated and not on accounting conventions.
Marketing managers can use it to identify the value of their strategies
relative to future cash flow as this reflects the value to investors.
KEY WORDS Shareholders, analysis, value
IMPLICATIONS
Shareholder value analysis can be a potentially valuable method in devel-
oping and justifying marketing strategies. It can provide a highly effective
way of demonstrating the contribution of marketing to the firm’s overall
financial performance. SVA shows that value creation relies heavily on
how effective the firm is in developing its marketing assets (Doyle 2000).
This is because marketing assets drive the four determinants of share-
holders’ value, which are future cash flow, its timing, the risk attached to
the business, and its continuing value.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Srivastava, Rajendra K., Shervani, Tasadduq A., and Fahey, Liam (1998). ‘Market-
Based Assets and Shareholder Value: A Framework for Analysis,’ Journal of Mar-
keting, 62(1), January, 2–18.
Srivastava, Rajendra K., Shervani, Tasadduq A., and Fahey, Liam (1990). ‘Marketing,
Business Processes, and Shareholder Value: An Organizationally Embedded View
of Marketing Activities and the Discipline of Marketing,’ Journal of Marketing, 63,
Fundamental Issues and Directions for Marketing, 168–179.
Doyle, Peter, and Wong, Veronica (1998). ‘Marketing and Competitive Perfor-
mance: An Empirical Study,’ European Journal of Marketing, 32(5/6), June, 514–535.
Marketing Management
Duncan, Tom, and Moriarty, Sandra E. (1998). ‘A Communication-Based Marketing
Model for Managing Relationships,’ Journal of Marketing, 62(2), April, 1–13.
skunkworks 478
Marketing Research
Agrawal, Jagdish, and Kamakura, Wagner A. (1995). ‘The Economic Worth of
Celebrity Endorsers: An Event Study Analysis,’ Journal of Marketing , 59(3), July,
56–62.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Doyle, Peter (2000). ‘Value-Based Marketing,’ Journal of Strategic Marketing, 8(4), 299–
310.
shopping cart abandonment see retail marketing
shopping product see product classifications, consumer
short message service marketing/short messaging service
marketing
see mobile marketing
skimming see pricing strategies
skunkworks
DESCRIPTION
An approach to product development and innovation that utilizes firm
resources, design activities, and team relationships in a more timely and
effective manner by breaking away from organizational bureaucracy and
standard frameworks.
KEY INSIGHTS
Skunkworks involve organizing a subset of the firm’s product develop-
ment initiatives in a way that insulates the product developers engaged in
such initiatives from many of the mainstream demands and constraints
imposed on the rest of the organization. Skunkworks are often associ-
ated with relatively secretive new product development projects and are
viewed as a way of fostering successful innovations (Quinn 1996).
KEY WORDS New product development, innovation, bureaucracy
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers involved in new product development may potentially benefit
from initiating a skunkworks structure within their organization as it
is an approach to structuring new product development that provides a
means to eliminate bureaucracy, permit creative communication, create
high motivation, emphasize group identity, and enable a loose operating
structure (Tushman and O’Reilly 1999). It involves breaking the rules,
where the structure, planning of resources and budgets, and decisions
lie within the product development team.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Bower, J., and Christensen, C. (1995). ‘Disruptive Technologies: Catching the Wave,’
Harvard Business Review, 73(1), 43–53.
Marketing Management
Gordon, Geoffrey L., Ayers, Douglas J., Hanna, Nessim, and Ridnour, Rick E. (1995).
‘The Product Development Process: Three Misconceptions Which Can Derail
479 sleeper effect
Even the “Best-Laid” Plans,’ Journal of Product & Brand Management, 4(1), March,
7–17.
Rosenau, Milton D. Jr. (1988). ‘Faster New Product Development,’ Journal of Product
Innovation Management, 5(2), 150–153.
Cordero, Rene (1991). ‘Managing for Speed to Avoid Product Obsolescence: A
Survey of Techniques,’ Journal of Product Innovation Management, 8(4), 283–294.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Quinn, J. B. (1996). ‘Team Innovation,’ Executive Excellence, 13(7), 13–17.
Tushman, M. L., and O’Reilly, C. A., III (1999). ‘Building Ambidextrous Organiza-
tions: Forming your Own “Skunk Works,” ’ Health Forum Journal, 42(2), March–
April, 20–23.
sleeper effect
DESCRIPTION
An effect where the persuasiveness of a message increases with time.
KEY INSIGHTS
While there may be many explanations for the occurrence of a sleeper
effect in persuasive communication, some predictions of the occurrence
of a sleeper effect in persuasion are based on the view that low source
credibility or some other discounting factor inhibits the immediate per-
suasiveness of an otherwise compelling message but, with the passage of
time, the source becomes dissociated from the message, thereby leading
to increased message influence. Research on the effect has been some-
what mixed in both findings and interpretation, however, resulting in a
degree of controversy over its existence and the conditions under which
it may occur, if at all.
KEY WORDS Persuasion, communication, time
IMPLICATIONS
While research on the sleeper effect may be controversial and some-
what inconclusive, the concept of the sleeper effect and the possible
mechanisms in support of it nevertheless provide marketers involved
in researching persuasive communication methods with additional per-
spectives that may potentially assist in understanding and explaining the
many factors that influence their effectiveness.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Consumer Behavior
Mazursky, David, and Schul, Yaacov (1988). ‘The Effects of Advertisement Encoding
on the Failure to Discount Information: Implications for the Sleeper Effect,’
Journal of Consumer Research, 15(1), June, 24–36.
Hannah, Darlene B., and Sternthal, Brian (1984). ‘Detecting and Explaining the
Sleeper Effect,’ Journal of Consumer Research, 11(2), September, 632–642.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kumkale, G. T., and Albarracin, D. (2004). ‘The Sleeper Effect in Persuasion: A Meta-
analytic Review,’ Psychological Bulletin, 130(1), 143–172.
Hovland, C. I., Lumsdaine, A., and Sheffield, F. (1949). Experiments on Mass Communi-
cation. Princeton: Princeton University Press.