Dacko S.G. The Advanced Dictionary of Marketing Putting Theory to Use
Подождите немного. Документ загружается.
placebo effect 390
part of a particular place. To be sure, much of place marketing involves
modifications to, or management of, infrastructure that makes a place
more amenable to its target markets. While any given place will vary
in what it has to offer and in what it can possibly offer, many well-
established marketing principles and practices are applicable to the mar-
keting of any place, particularly when the marketer adopts the view
that a place is a good (product or service), albeit fixed in location, to be
purchased, consumed, and/or used. At the same time, in place market-
ing, there is clearly a strong experiential element to the offering. Thus,
effective place marketing necessarily entails developing marketing strat-
egies based on appropriate positioning strategies and the communication
of its experiential value, recognizing that any place will have both an
actual value and a perceived value in the minds of current and potential
customers.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Buhalis, D. (2000). ‘Marketing the Competitive Destination in the Future,’ Tourism
Management, 21(1), 97–116.
Marketing Management
Ritchie, R. J. B., and Ritchie, J. R. B. (2002). ‘A Framework for an Industry Supported
Destination Marketing System,’ Tourism Management, 23, 439–454.
Marketing Research
Woodside, A. G. (1990). ‘Measuring Advertising Effectiveness in Destination Mar-
keting Strategies,’ Journal of Travel Research, 29(2), 3–8.
International Marketing
Kotler, P., and Gertner, D. (2002). ‘Country as Brand, Product, and Beyond: A Place
Marketing and Brand Management Perspective,’ Journal of Brand Management,
9(4–5), April, 249–261.
Public Sector Marketing
Fretter, A. D. (1993). ‘Place Marketing: A Local Authority Perspective,’ in G. Kearns
and C. Philo (eds.), Selling Places: The City as Cultural Capital, Past and Present. Oxford:
Pergamon.
Gartrell, R. B. (1988). Destination Marketing for Convention and Visitor Bureaus.Des
Moines, Ia.: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.
Ulagaa, W., Sharmab, A., and Krishnanc, R. (2002). ‘Plant Location and Place Mar-
keting: Understanding the Process from the Business Customer’s Perspective,’
Industrial Marketing Management, 31, 393–401.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Murray, C. (2001). Making Sense of Place: New Approaches to Place Marketing. Leicester:
Comedia.
placebo effect
DESCRIPTION
A positive effect that results from administering an action or treatment that is
inert or inactive but is believed by the recipient to have a benefit.
KEY INSIGHTS
While the placebo effect was initially identified and observed in the
context of medical treatments by Beecher (1955), the concept and
391 planned behavior, theory of
phenomenon has since been extended beyond medicine into marketing
as well as other related individual and organizational areas. Explanations
for why placebo actions or treatments are observed to work (as when
30–40% of a range of symptoms from medical ailments are shown to
improve as a result of administering placebos) are generally based on
recipient expectancies, e.g. that it is because its recipients believe and
expect the actions or treatments will work. Although the phenomenon is
not fully understood, it is nevertheless recognized as a valuable concept
that is shown to be present in a range of situations. Marketing research
by Shiv, Carmon, and Ariely (2005) finds, for example, that consumers
who paid a discounted price for an energy drink thought to increase
mental acuity actually derived less benefit from it (e.g. they solved fewer
puzzles) than those paying its full price.
KEY WORDS Cause, effect, expectancy
IMPLICATIONS
Like physicians, marketers, too, have tools, techniques, and methods at
their disposal that include the use of placebo-like elements in offerings
to their target audience. In the case of marketers, placebo effects may
arise, for example, as a result of a price alteration that changes the actual
customer-perceived usefulness of products or services to which they are
applied.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Research
Shiv, B., Carmon, Z., and Ariely, D. (2005). ‘Placebo Effects of Marketing Actions:
Consumers May Get What They Pay For,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 42(4), 383–
393.
Lauren, Caglar Irmak, Gavan, G. Block, and Fitzsimons, J. (2005). ‘The Placebo Effect
in Marketing: Sometimes You Just Have to Want It to Work,’ Journal of Marketing
Research, 42(4), November, 406–409.
Borsook, D., and Becerra, L. (2005). ‘Placebo: From Pain and Analgesia to Prefer-
ences and Products,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 42(4), 394–398.
Berns, Gregory S. (2005). ‘Price, Placebo, and the Brain,’ Journal of Marketing Research,
42(4), November, 399–400.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Beecher, H. K. (1955). ‘The Powerful Placebo,’ Journal of the American Medical Associa-
tion, 159, 1602–1606.
Shiv, B., Carmon, Z., and Ariely, D. (2005). ‘Ruminating about Placebo Effects of
Marketing Actions,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 42(4), 410–414.
placement effect see order effect
planned behavior, theory of
DESCRIPTION
A theory linking attitudes and behavior that builds upon the theory of rea-
soned action by further incorporating the notion of an individual’s perceived
behavioral control.
planned behavior, theory of 392
KEY INSIGHTS
Based on pioneering research by Ajzen (1988, 1991; Ajzen and Madden
1986), the theory of planned behavior holds that individual actions are
guided by beliefs about the likely outcomes of behaviors, beliefs about
the expectations of others, and beliefs about the nature of control that
the individual has over conditions that may facilitate or impede per-
forming the behaviors. In relating these areas, the theory suggests, for
example, that individuals’ behavioral intentions will be stronger to the
extent they are supported by favorable beliefs about the outcome and
other’s expectations. Such individuals may then carry out their intentions
to perform certain behaviors when appropriate opportunities arise as a
result of their beliefs that they have a sufficient actual degree of control
over the behavior.
KEY WORDS Behavior, attitudes, control
IMPLICATIONS
For marketers seeking to understand and relate consumer behavior to
a firm’s product and service offerings, the theory of planned behav-
ior and its associated concepts can provide a basis for analyzing how
individuals’ beliefs about actions, expectations of others, and personal
control influence their preferences for consumption behavior as well as
their actual consumption behaviors. Whether in making choices about
leisure decisions or online shopping, the theory highlights the potentially
important area of perceived individual control for a range of consumer
actions that marketers can seek to influence and facilitate with their
product and service offerings.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Research
Ajzen, I., and Driver, B. L. (1992) ‘Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior to
Leisure Choice,’ Journal of Leisure Research, 24(3), 207–224.
Taylor, S., and Todd, P. (1995). ‘Decomposition and Crossover Effects in the Theory
of Planned Behavior: A Study of Consumer Adoption Intentions,’ International
Journal of Research in Marketing, 12(2), July, 137–155.
Notani, Arti Sahni (1998). ‘Moderators of Perceived Behavioral Control’s Predic-
tiveness in the Theory of Planned Behavior: A Meta-analysis,’ Journal of Consumer
Psychology, 7(3), 247–271.
Online Marketing
Hoffman, Donna L., and Novak, Thomas P. (1996). ‘Marketing in Hypermedia
Computer-Mediated Environments: Conceptual Foundations,’ Journal of Market-
ing, 60(3), July, 50–68.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ajzen, I. (1988). Attitudes, Personality, and Behavior. Milton Keynes: Open University
Press.
Ajzen, I. (1991). ‘The Theory of Planned Behavior,’ Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Processes, 50, 179–211.
Ajzen, I., and Madden, T. J. (1986). ‘Prediction of Goal-Directed Behavior: Atti-
tudes, Intentions, and Perceived Behavioral Control,’ Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, 22, 453–474.
393 point-of-purchase marketing
pleasing products see societal classification of products
point-of-purchase marketing
DESCRIPTION
Marketing where there is an emphasis on strategies and tactics involving the
precise locations of purchase activity.
KEY INSIGHTS
Point-of-purchase marketing is concerned with increasing a firm’s mar-
keting effectiveness by focusing marketing efforts on the precise spots
where products or services are able to be acquired by current and/or
prospective customers. In retail stores, for example, point-of-purchase
marketing activity involves attention to shelf space considerations (e.g.
positioning a large quantity of the firm’s products at eye level) and dis-
plays (e.g. colorful, eye-catching signs and other promotional materials).
In some industries, such as tobacco, the majority of a firm’s marketing
efforts may be in point-of-purchase marketing.
KEY WORDS Purchase locations
IMPLICATIONS
Particularly in retail environments, point-of-purchase marketing can be
an important strategic as well as tactical consideration in the marketing
of a firm’s offerings. In addition, when product purchases are sometimes
the result of spontaneous or impulse purchase decisions of consumers,
a strong emphasis on point-of-purchase marketing may lead to higher
overall marketing effectiveness by the firm.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Kapoor, T., Wildey, M. B., Pelletier, R. L., Elder, J. P., and Sallis, J. F. (1999). ‘Point-
of-Purchase Marketing Strategies to Increase Low Fat Chip Sales in a School
Cafeteria,’ Society of Behavioral Medicine, March, San Diego.
Wakefield, M., Terry, Y. M., Chaloupka, F., Barker, D. C., Slater, S., Clark, P. I., and
Giovino, G. A. (2002). ‘Tobacco Industry Marketing at Point of Purchase after the
1998 MSA Billboard Advertising Ban,’ American Journal of Public Health, 92(6), June,
937–940.
Marketing Research
Chandon, P., Hutchinson, J. W., and Young, S. (2001). ‘Measuring the Value of Point-
of-Purchase Marketing with Commercial Eye-Tracking Data,’ INSEAD Working
Paper, 19/MKT.
Wertenbroch, Klaus, and Bernd, Skiera (2002). ‘Measuring Consumers’ Willingness
to Pay at the Point of Purchase,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 39, May, 228–
241.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Phillips, H., and Cox, J. (1998). ‘Point of Purchase Marketing,’ Journal of Brand
Management, 5(3), 186–93.
point-of-sale marketing 394
point-of-sale marketing
DESCRIPTION
Marketing where there is an emphasis on strategies and tactics involving the
precise locations of selling activity for the firm’s offerings.
KEY INSIGHTS
Point-of-sale marketing overlaps strongly with point-of-purchase market-
ing, although the former is far more inclusive of marketing to retailers
and other organizations that offer the firm’s products or services for sale
to current and prospective customers. As such, point-of-sale marketing
may include incentives to a specific retailer to market the firm’s offerings
in a certain way. In addition, point-of-sale marketing may also involve
approaches that systematically translate knowledge of consumer buying
behavior (e.g. customer purchase histories) into the marketing plans and
actions of retailers—something that is the subject of claims of a number
of patents, for example.
KEY WORDS Sales locations
IMPLICATIONS
In implementing point-of-purchase marketing, particularly in retail envir-
onments, marketers must also engage in point-of-sale marketing. At the
same time, marketers may engage in point-of-sale marketing but also
leave the seller of the firm’s offerings with a relative amount of freedom
to determine appropriate point-of-sale marketing activity. In either case,
a greater knowledge of point-of-sale marketing approaches provides the
marketer with an opportunity to increase the firm’s marketing effective-
ness by focusing its efforts on key factors of influence in sales location
success.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Laws, M. B., Whitman, J., Bowser, D. M., and Krech, L. (2002). ‘Tobacco Availability
and Point of Sale Marketing in Demographically Contrasting Districts of Massa-
chusetts,’ Tobacco Control, 11 (Suppl. 2), ii71–ii73.
Harper, T. (2006). ‘Why the Tobacco Industry Fears Point of Sale Display Bans,’
Tobacco Control, 15(3), June, 270–271.
Donovan, R. J., Jancey, J., and Jones, S. (2002). ‘Tobacco Point of Sale Advertising
Increases Positive Brand User Imagery,’ Tobacco Control, 11(3), 191–194.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Feighery, E. C., Ribisl, K. M., Schleicher, N., Lee, R. E., and Halvorson, S. (2001).
‘Cigarette Advertising and Promotional Strategies in Retail Outlets: Results of a
Statewide Survey in California,’ Tobacco Control, 10, 184–188.
Deaton, David W., and Gabriel, Rodney G. (1997). Method and System for Selective
Incentive Point-of-Sale Marketing in Response to Customer Shopping Histories. United
States Patent 5644723, US Patent Issued on July 1, 1997.
political environment see macroenvironment
395 Pollyanna effect
Pollyanna effect
(also called the Pollyanna hypothesis)
DESCRIPTION
The phenomenon where pleasant information is processed more easily and
recalled better than unpleasant information, as well as the tendency for indi-
viduals to give more attention to pleasant information relative to unpleasant
information in their thought and speech.
KEY INSIGHTS
The Pollyanna effect, as researched by C. E. Osgood (Boucher and Osgood
1969), where it was named after a fictional female character in a novel
series, involves the tendency to process and recall positive information
more easily than negative information and, more generally, the pervasive
human tendency to define the experience of reality as more good than
bad. At the extreme, an individual exhibiting the Pollyanna effect may
recall only positive information about a past event, for example. While
there are individual differences as to what is termed Pollyannism, the
generally pervasive tendency associated with the phenomenon has led to
a much higher frequency of certain common positive words in written
language in comparison to that for certain common negative words.
KEY WORDS Information processing, recall, positive information
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers seeking to enhance consumer recall of a firm’s offerings may
find that consumers are much more likely to process and recall such
information more easily when the information is positive or pleasant
as opposed to negative or unpleasant. At the same time, marketers con-
ducting consumer research must consider its possible effects in obtaining
and evaluating positive and negative consumer views regarding their past
experiences.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Management
Resnick, Paul, Zeckhauser, Richard, Swanson, John, and Lockwood, Kate (2006).
‘The Value of Reputation on eBay: A Controlled Experiment,’ Experimental Eco-
nomics, 9(2), June, 79–101.
Olander, Folke (1977) ‘Can consumer dissatisfaction and complaints guide public
consumer policy?’ Journal of Consumer Policy, 1(2), March, 124–137.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Boucher, J., and Osgood, C. E. (1969). ‘The Pollyanna Hypothesis,’ Journal of Verbal
Learning and Verbal Behavior, 8, 1–8.
Matlin, M. W., and Gawron, V. J. (1979). ‘Individual Differences in Pollyannism,’
Journal of Personality Assessment, 43, 411–412.
population ecology theory 396
population ecology theory
DESCRIPTION
A theory holding that most of the variability in organizational structures comes
about through the creation of new organizations and organizational forms and
the replacement of old ones.
KEY INSIGHTS
Put forth in research by Hannan and Freeman (1977), Freeman and Han-
nan (1983), and McKelvey (1982), population ecology theory provides an
ecologically based perspective for understanding, explaining, and predict-
ing organizational change in terms of organizational changes occurring
in a firm’s industry and markets. More broadly, the theory is based on the
study of the dynamics of species populations and how such populations
interact with their environment.
KEY WORDS Organizational structure, organizational change
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers looking for additional perspectives for understanding how
and why organizational forms and structures develop and contribute
to sustaining the organization may benefit from a greater knowledge
of population ecology-related research. While acceptance of the theory
among marketing researchers remains variable, it nevertheless provides
marketers with a broader perspective, and one which draws upon ecolog-
ical analogy, that is often lacking in mainstream marketing.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Achrol, Ravi S. (1991). ‘Evolution of the Marketing Organization: New Forms for
Turbulent Environments,’ Journal of Marketing, 55(4), October, 77–93.
Stearns, T. M., Carter, N. M., Reynolds, P. D., and Williams, M. (1995). ‘New Firm Sur-
vival: Industry, Strategy and Location,’ Journal of Business Venturing, 10(1), 23–42.
Marketing Management
Getz, D. (2002). ‘Why Festivals Fail,’ Event Management, 7, 209–219.
Jaworski, Bernard J. (1988). ‘Toward a Theory of Marketing Control: Environmental
Context, Control Types, and Consequences,’ Journal of Marketing, 52(3), July, 23–
39.
Shoham, A., and Fiegenbaum, A. (2002). ‘Competitive Determinants of
Organizational Risk-Taking Attitude: The Role of Strategic Reference Points,’
Management Decision, 40(2), 127–141.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hannan, Michael T., and Freeman, John (1977). ‘The Population Ecology of Organ-
izations,’ American Journal of Sociology, 82, 929–964.
Freeman, John, and Hannan, Michael T. (1983). ‘Niche Widths and the Dynamics
of Organizational Populations,’ American Journal of Sociology, 88, 116–145.
Hannan, M. T., and Freeman, J. (1984), ‘Structural Inertia and Organizational
Change,’ American Sociological. Review, 49, 149–164.
McKelvey, Bill (1982). Organizational Systematics. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Univer-
sity of California Press.
population validity see validity
397 positioning
portfolio analysis see product portfolio analysis
portfolio theory
DESCRIPTION
Theory and mathematical frameworks that are concerned with the use of
investment portfolios of holdings to manage risks and financial returns.
KEY INSIGHTS
Portfolio theory, as developed by Markovitz (1959), is based on the views
that diversifying holdings can reduce risks, that financial returns are
dependent on expected risks, and that risk-averse investors will only take
increased risks if compensated by adequately higher expected returns.
The theory and mathematical frameworks facilitate investors’ minimiz-
ing risks and maximizing returns and establishing an efficient set of
portfolios from which to choose based on an investor’s risk preferences.
KEY WORDS Portfolios, investments, risk, financial return
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers may benefit from understanding the theoretical frameworks
and concepts of portfolio theory in assisting with a firm’s efforts to
minimize risks and maximize returns in its various investments, whether
at the firm level or strategic marketing level. Marketers may also use the
theory to gain insights into appropriate practices for managing portfolios
of customers as well.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Ryals, L. (2003). ‘Making Customers Pay: Measuring and Managing Customer Risk
and Returns,’ Journal of Strategic Marketing, 11(3), 165–176.
Yorke, D. A., and Droussiotis, G. (1994). ‘The Use of Customer Portfolio Theory: An
Empirical Survey,’ Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing, 9(3), 6–18.
Lubatkin, Michael, and Chatterjee, Sayan (1994). ‘Extending Modern Portfolio
Theory into the Domain of Corporate Diversification: Does It Apply?’ Academy
of Management Journal, 37(10), February, 109–136.
Lubatkin, Michael (1983). ‘Mergers and the Performance of the Acquiring Firm,’
Academy of Management Review, 8(2), April, 218–225.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Markovitz, H. (1959). Portfolio Selection: Efficient Diversification of Investments. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.
positioning
DESCRIPTION
The way a firm’s offering is perceived by its target market in relation to that of
competitor offerings.
KEY INSIGHTS
Whether a firm’s offering is a product, service, or brand, the firm fre-
quently has a choice regarding how the offering should be positioned in
positioning 398
the market. Offerings may be positioned along a few or many dimen-
sions, where the specific dimensions considered and used are ones that
are meaningful to consumers and strategically important to the firm.
When there are many competitors in the marketplace, the firm must
consider carefully how current and potential consumers will perceive the
offering in relation to competing offerings. A key aim of positioning is to
differentiate the firm’s offerings from those of competitors, as there is
often little to be gained by positioning in a completely identical way to
a competitor. Just two examples of positioning dimensions are attribute
positioning (or functional benefit positioning), where the firm seeks to
position itself in a superior way relative to competitors on a product
attribute valued by customers (e.g. cavity-fighting ability for a toothpaste)
and product line breadth positioning, where the firm seeks to position
itself in a desirable way relative to competitors on the sheer number of
products that the firm offers (as a means to signal convenience and mar-
ket leadership, for example). There are, of course, any number of ways
a firm can position its offerings, including the important dimensions of
price and quality. Additionally, firms may adopt a position that the firm
is able to make meaningful in the minds of consumers, even though such
a position may have no real substance. Thus, meaningless differentiation
involves positioning an offering on an attribute that may be unique to
offering but in actuality is not related to its performance (e.g. the unique
but ultimately meaningless attribute of ‘coffee crystals’ in a firm’s instant
coffee offering).
KEY WORDS Attributes, benefits, product perceptions, competitive posi-
tioning, strategic positioning
IMPLICATIONS
While it is certainly easy to focus on major positioning dimensions
such as price and quality, marketers have a wide array of positioning
approaches from which to choose. As many product and service offer-
ings involve the use of three to five important positioning dimensions,
marketers must be sure to give sufficient attention to the broader set of
positioning dimensions that the firm and its competitors are currently
using and may use at some future point for strategic advantage.
APPLICATION AREAS AND FURTHER READINGS
Marketing Strategy
Hooley, G., Saunders, J. A., and Piercy, N. F. (1998). Marketing Strategy and Competitive
Positioning, 2nd edn. Harlow: Prentice-Hall.
Brooksbank, R. (1994). ‘The Anatomy of Marketing Positioning Strategy,’ Marketing
Intelligence and Planning, 12(4), 10–14.
Marketing Management
Hooley, Graham, and Saunders, J. (1993). Competitive Positioning: The Key to Market
Success. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice-Hall.
Marketing Research
Kaul, A., and Rao, V. R. (1995). ‘Research for Product Positioning and Design
Decisions: An Integrative Review,’ International Journal of Research in Marketing, 12,
293–320.
399 power law of forgetting
Services Marketing
Shostack, G. L. (1987). ‘Service Positioning through Structural Change,’ Journal of
Marketing, 51, Winter, 33–43.
Business-to-Business Marketing
Doyle, P., and Saunders, J. (1985). ‘Market Segmentation and Positioning in Special-
ized Industrial Markets,’ Journal of Marketing, 49, Spring, 24–32.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Myers, J. H. (1996). Segmentation and Positioning for Strategic Marketing Decisions.
Chicago: American Marketing Association.
Carpenter, Gregory S., Glazer, Rashi, and Nakamoto, Kent (1994). ‘Meaning-
ful Brands from Meaningless Differentiation: The Dependence on Irrelevant
Attributes,’ Journal of Marketing Research, 31(3), August, 339–350.
Broniarczyk, S., and Gershoff, A. (1997). ‘Meaningless Differentiation Revisited,’ in
Merrie Brucks and D. J. McInnis (eds.), Advances in Consumer Research, 24. Provo,
Ut.: Association for Consumer Research, 223–228.
Ries, Al, and Trout, Jack (2001). Positioning: The Battle for Your Mind. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Trout, Jack, and Ries, Al (1972). ‘The Positioning Era Cometh’, Advertising Age, 17,
April 24, 35–38.
postal marketing see direct marketing
post-purchase behavior see buyer decision process
power law of forgetting
DESCRIPTION
Specific characterization of the decline in memory performance with time by
a mathematical power function.
KEY INSIGHTS
Studies by several memory researchers view the decline in memory
performance with time or intervening events as being well fit by a math-
ematical power function (Wickelgren 1974, 1977; Wixsted 1990; Wixsted
and Ebbesen 1997). A power function is a function with a variable base
and a constant exponent (e.g. f (x)=ax
b
). As different researchers have
different views on the form and parameters of forgetting functions, the
power law of forgetting is sometimes referred to more specifically as the
Wickelgren power law or Wixsted’s power law, for example. In studies
of forgetting behavior, the power law of forgetting is typically applied to
situations where forgetting is from long-term memory.
It is important to note that the power law of forgetting should not be
confused with the forgetting curve, sometimes called the law of forget-
ting, as developed by Ebbinghaus (1885). The forgetting curve of Ebbing-
haus is an empirical result based upon specific experimental conditions
for learning and recall.
KEY WORDS Memory, forgetting, mathematical modeling
IMPLICATIONS
Marketers seeking to understand, explain, and predict forgetting behav-
iors and tendencies of consumers may potentially obtain useful insights